LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Plate  I. 


FIG.  i. — COTTON  x  130. 


FIG.  2.— MANILLA  (A)  AND  HEMP  (B)  x  130. 


[Frontispiece. 


PRACTICAL   PAPER-MAKING 

A   MANUAL 

FOR  PAPER-MAKERS  AND  OWNERS  AND 
MANAGERS   OF  PAPER  MILLS 

TO  WHICH   ARK   APPENDED 

USEFUL  TABLES,  CALCULATIONS,  DATA,  ETC. 


BY 

GEORGE    CLAPPERTON 
»  / 

PAPER-MAKER 


SSBith  JUttstratiotts  ^Uproftttttb  from  Jfti 

SECOND  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


NEW  YORK 
D.  VAN  NQSTRAND  COMPANY 

23  MURRAY  AND   27   WARREN   STREETS 

LONDON  :   CROSBY   LOCKWOOD   AND   SON 

1907 


PREFACE. 


THE  Author  is  well  aware  that  the  subject  of 
PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING  is  one  to  which  a 
much  larger  and  fuller  work  than  the  present  might 
have  been  devoted.  He  trusts,  however,  that  this 
little  volume,  slight  as  is  the  treatment  of  most  por- 
tions of  the  subject,  will  in  some  measure  supply  a 
need  which  he  has  himself  felt  for  several  years, 
and  more  especially  during  the  first  years  of  his 
apprenticeship — namely,  the  need  of  a  work  on  Paper- 
making  which,  while  not  neglecting  those  teachings 
of  theoretical  and  practical  chemistry,  the  under- 
standing of  which  is  necessary  for  the  successful 
and  economic  production  of  paper,  should  at  the 
same  time  give  due  consideration  to  the  practical 
working  of  the  Paper  Mill. 

He  is  aware,  also,  that  to  carry  out  this  plan,  even 

on  the  unambitious  scale  of  the  present  work,  there 

iii 

165081 


iv  PREFACE. 

is  required  of  an  author  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
actual  working  of  the  mill,  such  as  can  only  be 
obtained  by  years  of  practical  work  in  the  various 
departments.  His  own  experience,  he  is  able  to  say, 
having  been  such  as  should  qualify  him  for  the  task 
he  has  here  undertaken,  he  ventures  to  hope  that 
many  Paper-makers  and  Millowners  will  find  in  these 
pages  knowledge  and  information  of  no  little  value, 
which  has  not  hitherto  been  accessible  in  a  similar 
form.  To  what  extent  the  work  answers  his 
desires,  his  readers  will  be  best  able  to  judge. 

Special  attention  may  be  invited  to  the  illustrations 
of  the  Microscopical  Examination  of  Paper  and 
Paper-making  Materials,  which  have  been  repro- 
duced from  micro-photographs. 

In  the  APPENDIX  will  be  found  some  useful  Tables, 
Data,  etc.,  compiled  from  various  sources. 

BLACKBURN,  PENICUIK. 
March  1894. 

NOTE    TO    SECOND    EDITION. 

FOR  the  present  edition,  the  work  has  been  carefully 
revised  and  some  additions  made  (enlarging  the  volume 
by  about  18  or  20  pages),  so  as  to  bring  the  information 
fully  up  to  date. 

SANDFORD-ON-THAMES,  near  OXFORD. 
November  1906. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

CHEMICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF 
VARIOUS  FIBRES. 

PAGE 

Cellulose :  its  Composition  and  Chemical  Properties — Effect  of 
Bleach — Of  Atmosphere — Oxycellulose — Action  of  Solvents 
— Detection — Relation  to  Plants — Incrusting  Substances — 
Cotton — Compound  Celluloses — Pectocellulose—  Lignocellu- 
lose — Adipocellulose — Isolation — Rags  and  Thread — "  Bast " 
Fibres,  Fibro- Vascular  Bundles — Physical  Features  of  Cotton, 
Linen,  Hemp,  Jute,  Manilla,  Esparto,  Straw,  Wood  .  .  I 


CHAPTER  II. 

CUTTING  AND  BOILING  OF  RAGS.— JUTE  BOILING 
AND  BLEACHING. 

Grading — Cutting  Machine — Rationale  of  Boiling — Caustic  Soda 

— Lime— Jute  Boiling  and  Bleaching 8 


CHAPTER  III. 

WET  PICKING— WASHING,    BREAKING,    AND   BLEACH- 
ING.—ELECTROLYTIC  BLEA  CHING.—ANTICHLOR. 

Wet  Picking — Washing  Drum — Management  of  Breaker,  Plates, 
and  Rolls — Weak  Liquor — Bleaching  Powder — Rationale  of 
Bleaching — Effect  of  Steam,  Sulphuric  Acid,  Alum,   Acetic 
V 


VI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Acid — Jute,  Reaction  with  Chlorine — Amount  of  Bleach 
for  Various  Qualities — Preparation  of  Bleaching  Liquor — 
Apparatus  —  Lime  Mud  —  Electrolytic  Bleaching  —  Ozone 
Bleach — Hermete's  Method — Bleaching  and  Draining  Chests 
— Antichlor — Hyposulphite  of  Soda — Sulphite  of  Soda — 
Dangers  from  Excess— Test  for  Bleach  .  .  ',  .  .  17 


CHAPTER  IV. 
CELLULOSE  FROM  WOOD.— MECHANICAL  WOOD  PULP. 

Composition  of  Wood — Classification  of  Processes — Mechanical 
Treatment — Alkali- Processes — Watt  and  Burgess's — Effect 
of  Caustic  Solutions  —  Sulphite  Processes  —  Ekman's  — 
Partington's—  Mitscherlich's — Sulphate  Processes,  Dahl's — 
Method  Employed  in  Scotch  Mill— Mechanical -Wood-Pre- 
paration— Properties  .  .  »  .  v._  «  •'  •  31 


CHAPTER  V. 
ESPARTO  AND  STRAW. 

Percentage  Composition — Nature  and  Combination  of  Cellulose — 
Dusting — Sorting — Effect  of  Caustic  Solution,  of  Pressure, 
Boiling — Amount  of  Caustic  Required — Concentration  ot 
Boiling  Solution — Washing  Under  Pressure — Steepers — 
Potchers — Drum  Washer — Loss  in  Washing — Bleaching 
Effect  of  Steam — Duration — Straw,  Pressure  and  Strength 
of  Boiling  Solutions—  Nature  of  Finished  Pulp — Loss  in 
Washing— Yield  of  Cellulose— Effect  on  Paper  .  .44 


CHAPTER  VI. 
BEATING. 

Stuff  for  Bank,  Loan,  Chromo,  and  Litho  Papers — Condition  and 
Management  of  Plates  and  Rolls — Tempering  the  Stuff  for 
Various  Qualities — Marshall's  Perfecting  Engine — Interme- 
diate Engines — Spanish  Grass — Wood — Soft-sized  Papers — 
Blottings — Construction  of  Beater.  Forbes'  Beater — Rusting  52 


CONTENTS.  vi 

CHAPTER  VII. 
LOADING.— STARCH.— COLOURING  MA  TTER. 

PAGE 

Legitimate  and  Necessary  Use — Selection  of  a  Loading — China 
Clay,  Preparation  for  the  Engine — Effect  on  Paper — Loading 
Chromo  and  Plate  Papers — "  Pearl  Hardening,"  Application 
— Properties — Barium  Sulphate — Properties — Retention — 
Effect  on  Paper — Barium  Chloride — Agalite,  Nature  and 
Properties — Retention — Starch,  Properties — Application — 
Colour,  Ultramarine — Carnation — Standard  Samples — Alum 
Resisting  Power — Fading  in  Chests  and  Engines — Amounts 
Necessary  to  Counteract  Fading — Smalts — Iron — Aniline 
Colours,  Greens  .  .  .  .  .  .  ,  ,  "67 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
RESIN  SIZE  AND  SIZING. 

Theories  of  Sizing — Proportions  of  Resin  and  Soda — Recipe  for 
Neutral  Sodium  Resinate— Preparation—  Test  for  Complete 
Saponification — Dilution  for  the  Engine — White  Size — 
Preparation — Effect  of  Beating  on  Sizing — Alum — Sulphates 
of  Alumina — Solubility — Percentage  of  Alumina — Effect  of 
Hard  Water  on  Size— Neutralising  Hardness  in  Water — 
Amount  of  Alum  Consumed  by  Hard  Water — Effect  of 
Machine  Drying  Cylinders  on  Sizing— Caseine  Sizing  .  .  80 


CHAPTER  IX. 
THE  FOURDRINIER  MACHINE  AND  ITS  MANAGEMENT. 

Unequal  Weight — Chests — Agitators— Knots— Stuff  Pump — 
Sandtrap — Strainers — Working  of  Revolving  Strainers — 
Strainer  Plates  —  Knots  —  Breast-box  —  Deckles  —  Making 
Good  Edges — Knees — Leathers — Apron — Slices — Wove — 
Laid— Speed— Dandy  "  Lifting  "—Free  and  Long  Stuff— 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Soft  and  Fine  Stuff— Sticking— Length  of  Wire— Pitch  of 
Frame— Shake— Breast-roll— Pump  Boxes— Slack  Edges- 
Froth — "Bells" — Froth-killers— Cracks  and  Breaks—Named 
Dandies — Unequal  Shrinkage — Brown's  Patent  Laid  Dandy 
— "  Blowing  "—Wet  and  Dry  Felts—"  Cockling  "—Altering 
Draws — Unsteady  Wires — Making  Webs — Breaking  at 
Calenders — Changing  Strainers — Putting  on  and  Starting 
Wire — A  Raised  Seam — Putting  on  Coucher  Jacket — 
Starting  Calenders  .  .  .  \  "•-».•  .93 


CHAPTER  X. 
ANIMAL  SIZING.— DRYING. 

Extraction  of  Gelatine — Alum— Soap— Chests— Sizing  Tub — 
Effect  of  Beating— "  Peeling  "—Envelope  Papers— Use  of 
Steam — Drying — Steam  Heat — Fans — "Cockling" — "Spang- 
ling"— Speed  of  Drier— Loft  Drying  .  .  .  .  .137 


CHAPTER  XI. 
GLAZING  AND  BURNISHING. 

Smoothing  Rolls— Long  versus  Fine  Stuff— Damper — Alkaline 
Soap— Super-Calender — Effect  of  Heat— Pressure— Wood  and 
Straw  Papers— Coloured  Papers— Burnishing — Plate  Glazing  146 


CHAPTER  XII. 
CUTTING.— FINISHING. 

Revolving  Angle  and  Square  Cutter — Loading — Starting — 
Overloading  —  Circulars  —  Cross-cutting  Knives  —  Feeding- 
Rolls  — Tube-Rolls — Burnished  Papers — Creasing — Tissue 
Papers — Squaring  the  Sheets — Double  Draw — English  Cutter 
— Starting  New  Knife — Circulars — Feeding-Rolls — "  Dancer" 
— Lined  Papers  .  .  ,  ,  .  .''•'»  .152 


CONTENTS.  ix 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION  OF  PAPER. 

PAGE 

Use  of  Iodine — Apparatus — Standard  Specimens — Objectives — 
Physical  Characteristics — Cotton — Linen — Hemp — Manilla — 
Jute — Wood  — Esparto — Straw — Mechanical  Wood — Quan- 
titative Analysis — Mounting  Standard  Specimens  .  .  .  163 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
TESTS  FOR  INGREDIENTS  OF  PAPER. 

Animal  Size — Alum — Starch — Chlorides — Engine  Size — Mineral 

Substances     . 173 

CHAPTER  XV. 
RECOVERY  OF  SODA. 

Incineration — Porion  Roaster— Evaporator— Pan— Burning  Off 
— Lixiviation — Tanks — Method  of  Working — Causticising — 
Chemical  Action — Proportions  of  Soda  and  Lime — Plant — 
Method  of  Working— Test — Air. Blast— Sodium  Sulphide — 
Aluminate  and  Silicate — Effect  of  Sodium  Bi-carbonate — 
Ferric  Oxide  Causticising  Process — "Multiple  Effects" 
Rationale — Yaryan  System — Chapman  and  Fawcett's  Eva- 
porator —  Gaunt  Evaporator  —  Scott  Evaporator  —  Warren 
Rotary  Furnace .  178 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

TESTING  OF  CHEMICALS.— TESTING  WATER  FOR 
IMPURITIES. 

Caustic  and  Recovered  Soda — Normal  Sulphuric  Acid— Actual 
Test — Examples — Grades  of  Commercial  Caustic  Soda — 
Electrolytic  Manufacture— Alum — Antichlor — Preparation  of 
Iodine  Solution —Actual  Test — Bleaching  Powder — Arsenious 
Acid  Solution— Actual  Test— Weak  Liquors— Lime  Mud — 
Tables  of  Percentage  of  Caustic  Soda  and  Alum — Testing 
Water I95 


X  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

APPENDIX. 

PAGE 

Equivalent  Weights  and  Sizes  of  Writing  Papers          .         .  .209 

Equivalent  Weights  and  Sizes  of  Printing  Papers          .         „  .210 

Sizes  of  Book  and  Drawing  Papers        .        \         .        .        ..  .210 

Sizes  of  Cartridge  Papers  '.        •,.' "       .         .         .         .  .211 

Sizes  of  Lined  Papers    .         .         .        .        .        .     .   +.  , .  >  .  21 1 

Various  Calculations  relating  to  Weight  of  Reams  and  Webs  .  211 
Data  for  Ascertaining  the  Number  of  Gallons  of  Caustic  Liquor 
required  to  give  the  Number  of  Pounds  of  Na2O  necessary 

for  a  Boiling    .         .  .  .        .         .  .  212 

Table  showing  the  Strength  of  Bleaching  Powder  Solutions  .  213 

Weights  and  Measures  of  the  Metric  System         ....         .  .  214 

French  and  English  Thermometer  Scales       ,        .        .        .  .215 

Useful  Data    .       ..  '     ."      .        .        *     .  .       v.        .        •  ^21 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAPER-MAKING  MATERIALS  UNDER  THE  MICROSCOPE. 

PLATE  I.  COTTON,  MANILLA,  AND  HEMP  .  .  .  Frontispiece. 
„  II.  LINEN  AND  FLAX  .  ...  •  .  Facing  page  6 

„  III.  CHEMICAL  WOOD  AND  MECHANICAL  WOOD  .  „  31 

,,  IV.  ESPARTO  AND  STRAW  .  ••  .  .  .  „  44 
,,  V.  CHEMICAL  WOOD  AND  ESPARTO. — COTTON, 

LINEN,  WOOD,  AND  ESPARTO  .  .  .  „  163 
„  VI.  LINEN,  COTTON,  AND  ESPARTO.  —  MANILLA 

AND  COTTON  .  *  .  .  .  .  „  j66 
„  VII.  COTTON  AND  PEARL  HARDENING.— CHINA 

CLAY.        .        .        ....        .        .  „        I7I 

„  VIII.  PEARL  HARDENING. — TERRA  ALBA  .  .  „  172 

NOTE. — Plates  I.  to  V.  represent  the  various  fibres  in  the  state  of 
half-stuff,  while  the  illustrations  on  Plates  VI.  to  VIII.  are  from  the 
finished  papers. 


PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING, 


ERRATA. 

Page  77,  in  line  12,  for  « like  precipitate,"  read  "lake  precipitate/ 
»       »    »     »     26    „          "Amamine"         „  "Auramine." 


product,  a  thorough  grasp  of  these  characteristics  is 
indispensable  to  all  who  aim  at  the  production  of  the 
best  possible  results  with  the  minimum  of  cost. 

The  percentage  of  cellulose — or,  to  use  a  term  more 
readily  understood  by  paper-makers,  the  amount  of 
available  paper-making  material — varies  with  the  plants 
from  which  it  is  obtained,  and  the  treatment  to  which 
it  is  subjected  in  the  process  of  freeing  it  from  its 
combination  with  the  non-cellulose  or  non-available 
material  with  which  it  is  so  intimately  bound  up. 

The  chemical  formula  for  cellulose  is  CCH10O6,  which 
means  that  6  equivalents  of  carbon,  IO  of  hydrogen, 

i 


X  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

APPENDIX. 

PAGE 

Equivalent  Weights  and  Sizes  of  Writing  Papers          .         .        .  209 
Equivalent  Weights  and  Sizes  of  Printing  Papers          .         .         .  210 

Sizes  of  Book  and  Drawing  Papers 210 

Sizes  of  Cartridge  Papers       .        '.        >         .         .         .         .         .211 

Sizes  of  Lined  Papers    .         .         .         .        ...         .         .211 

Various  Calculations  relating  to  Weight  of  Reams  and  Webs       .  211 
Data  for  Ascertaining  the  Number  of  Gallons  of  Caustic  Liquor 
required  to  give  the  Number  of  Pounds  of  Na2O  necessary 


PAPER-MAKING  MATERIALS  UNDER  THE  MICROSCOPE. 

PLATE    I.  COTTON,  MANILLA,  AND  HEMP       .        .        .  Frontispiece. 
„       II.  LINEN  AND  FLAX  .        .        .        .        .        Facing  page    6 

„     III.  CHEMICAL  WOOD  AND  MECHANICAL  WOOD  .  „          31 

,,      IV.  ESPARTO  AND  STRAW    .        ...        .         .  „          44 

„  V.  CHEMICAL  WOOD  AND  ESPARTO. — COTTON, 

LINEN,  WOOD,  AND  ESPARTO  .  .  .  „  163 
„  VI.  LINEN,  COTTON,  AND  ESPARTO.  —  MANILLA 

AND  COTTON       ......  „        166 

„  VII.  COTTON  AND  PEARL  HARDENING. — CHINA 

CLAY ,,171 

„  VIII.  PEARL  HARDENING. — TERRA  ALBA  .  .  „  172 

NOTE. — Plates  I.  to  V.  represent  the  various  fibres  in  the  state  of 
half-stuff,  while  the  illustrations  on  Plates  VI.  to  VIII.  are  from  the 
finished  papers. 


PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 


CHAPTER    I. 

CHEMICAL  AND  PHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS 
OF   VARIOUS  FIBRES. 

As  the  chemical  and  physical  characteristics  of  the 
materials  from  which  the  paper-maker  draws  his  supply 
determine  to  a  marked  degree  the  quality  of  the  finished 
product,  a  thorough  grasp  of  these  characteristics  is 
indispensable  to  all  who  aim  at  the  production  of  the 
best  possible  results  with  the  minimum  of  cost. 

The  percentage  of  cellulose — or,  to  use  a  term  more 
readily  understood  by  paper-makers,  the  amount  of 
available  paper-making  material — varies  with  the  plants 
from  which  it  is  obtained,  and  the  treatment  to  which 
it  is  subjected  in  the  process  of  freeing  it  from  its 
combination  with  the  non -cellulose  or  non-available 
material  with  which  it  is  so  intimately  bound  up. 

The  chemical  formula  for  cellulose  is  C6H10O5,  which 
means  that  6  equivalents  of  carbon,  IO  of  hydrogen, 


2  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

and  5  of  oxygen  are  united  together  to  form  the  sub- 
stance known  by  that  name.  These  proportions  are 
constant,  though  the  physical  characteristics  may  differ 
very  widely,  and  it  is  of  the  first  importance  that  great 
care  be  taken,  in  the  different  processes  through  which 
the  raw  material  must  pass,  that  none  of  the  chemicals 
employed  have  the  effect  of  changing  its  nature  by 
adding  to  or  taking  from  its  constituents,  thus  giving 
rise  to  serious  complications. 

Cellulose  which  has  been  in  contact  with  bleaching 
solution  for  a  lengthened  period,  or  even  exposed  to 
the  action  of  air  and  light  for  any  length  of  time,  will 
be  found  to  have  lost  much  of  its  original  strength  and 
firmness,  and  in  addition  to  have  acquired  properties 
that  were  wanting  in  its  pure  state.  This  change  is 
due  to  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  oxygen  in  entering 
into  combination  with  the  cellulose  molecule  to  form 
what  is  technically  known  as  the  oxy-cellulose  obtained 
by  the  action  of  a  weak  oxidising  agent  on  cellulose. 

The  oxy-cellulose  has  the  property  of  extracting 
basic  colouring  matters  from  their  solutions  and  being 
permanently  dyed  by  them,  and  further  possesses  an 
extraordinary  affinity  for  vanadium  compounds,  uniting 
with  them  from  solutions  containing  infinitesimal  pro- 
portions. 

Pure  cellulose  is  insoluble  in  all  simple  solvents. 
A  solution  of  cupric  hydrate  in  ammonia  alone  acts 
on  it,  first  causing  it  to  swell  up  and  finally  dissolving 
it.  The  reaction  with  a  solution  of  iodine  in  potassium 


ISOLATION   OF   CELLULOSE.  3 

iodide  is  mostly  used  for  its  detection  ;  but  in  order 
to  render  it  effective  it  is  necessary  to  employ  a 
dehydrating  agent,  such  as  sulphuric  acid,  when 
the  characteristic  deep  blue  or  violet  colour  will  be 
produced. 

Before  the  cellulose  can  be  made  available  for  the 
manufacture  of  paper,  it  must  first  be  freed  from  its 
combination  with  the  non-cellulose  constituents  with 
which  it  is  united  to  form  the  plant  structure. 

Plants  may  be  designated  as  an  aggregation  of  fibres 
and  cells  bound  together  by  gummy,  resinous,  and 
waxy  substances,  which  have  a  function  similar  to 
that  performed  by  lime  in  cementing  and  rendering 
durable  the  stones  or  bricks  of  which  a  house  is  built ; 
and  as  the  stones,  in  order  to  be  used  in  the  building 
of  another  house,  would  first  have  to  be  freed  from  the 
lime  with  which  they  were  bound  together  in  the  pre- 
vious structure,  similarly  the  fibres  and  cells  must  be 
freed  from  all  substances  which,  though  indispensable 
to  their  existence  in  the  plant  life,  would  tend  to  impair 
their  value  as  paper-making  material. 

Cotton  differs  from  the  other  plants  in  this,  that  by 
the  natural  process  of  ripening  the  fibres  are  so  freed 
as  to  yield  a  pure  cellulose,  which  is  available  without 
the  preliminary  treatment  which  the  compound  cellu- 
loses must  undergo.  These  compound  celluloses  are 
classed  under  the  following  heads : — 

(i)  Pecto-celluloses,  so  named  because  they  yield 
pectic  acid  on  the  breaking  up  of  their  combination. 


4  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

The  flax  plant  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  celluloses 
comprising  this  group. 

(2)  Ligno-celluloses,   which  owe  the   designation  to 
their  yielding  non-cellulose  or  lignine  as  the  result  of 
their  disintegration.      Jute  is  the  typical  cellulose  of 
this  group,  in  which  are  included  all  the  different  forms 
of  woody  tissue. 

(3)  The  third  group  exist  in  such  a  small  proportion 
in  paper-making  materials,  that,  as  compared  with  the 
preceding  compound  celluloses,  they  are  of  little  im- 
portance.   They  are  known  by  the  name  adipo-celluloses, 
and  are  so  termed  because  on  reduction  they  yield  acids 
analogous  to  those  obtained  by  the  reduction  of  fats 
and  cork  tissue.      This  group  embraces  the  cuticular 
tissue  of  such  plants  as  straw,  esparto,  and  cotton. 

The  problem,  then,  which  presents  itself  to  the  prac- 
tical paper-maker  for  solution  is  not  simply  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  physical  features  of  the  fibres  he 
desires  to  use  for  the  production  of  his  paper,  but  to 
arrive  at  the  most  economical  method  by  which  he  can 
best  secure  the  liberation  of  such  fibres  in  the  form 
most  suited  to  his  particular  purpose,  while  preserving 
as  far  as  possible  the  original  strength. 

Such  materials  as  rags  and  thread,  which  have 
already  been  subjected  to  retting,  boiling,  and  bleach- 
ing by  the  textile  manufacturer,  require  no  very  drastic 
treatment  to  render  them  suitable  to  the  needs  of  the 
paper-maker,  as  they  are  already  in  a  more  or  less  pure 
state  before  coming  to  his  hands. 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF  PLANT  STRUCTURES.       5 

It  is  for  this  reason,  coupled  with  the  physical  cha- 
racteristics of  their  fibres,  that  they  are  so  much  valued 
by  him.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that  it  is  with 
such  materials  as  esparto,  straw,  and  wood  that  the 
chief  difficulties  in  the  way  of  extracting  the  available 
cellulose  exist. 

In  addition  to  the  fact  that  esparto  and  straw  have 
been  subjected  to  no  previous  disintegration,  there  is 
another  reason  which  renders  them  less  valuable  as  a 
paper-making  material.  In  the  process  of  the  building 
up  of  their  plant  structure  the  fibre-vascular  bundles, 
from  which  the  available  fibres  are  obtained,  are  scat- 
tered irregularly  throughout  the  main  mass,  and  are 
more  closely  connected  with  the  non-cellulose  con- 
stituents than  are  the  "  bast "  fibres  oi  flax,  hemp, 
and  jute,  the  fibre  bundles  or  "  filaments  "  of  which 
form  a  separate  and  cohesive  tissue,  and  are  thus 
more  easily  freed  from  the  surrounding  non-available 
material. 

Before  taking  up  the  different  processes  through 
which  the  materials  are  passed,  in  order  to  render 
them  fit  for  the  production  of  paper,  a  glance  at  the 
physical  features  of  the  various  fibres  will  be  of 
material  assistance  in  enabling  the  paper-maker  to 
obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  conditions  best  suited  to 
their  successful  treatment. 

The  ultimate  fibres  of  the  cotton  plant  consist,  as 
before  stated,  of  pure  cellulose,  and  on  examination 
under  the  microscope  will  appear  as  long,  flattened 


6  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

tubes  always  more  or  less  twisted  upon  themselves. 
The  side  walls  are  rough  and  granulated,  which  is  most 
easily  seen  when  dry.  They  are  strong  and  flexible, 
and  suited  for  the  production  of  the  finest  qualities 
of  paper,  though  from  the  spongy  nature  of  the  fibre 
the  finished  sheet  is  less  hard  than  that  made  from 
linen.  When  the  tubular  form  of  the  fibres  is'  borne 
in  mind,  it  will  be  at  once  understood  why  the  colouring 
matter  is  so  difficult  to  remove  from  coloured  cotton 
rags.  (See  Plate  I.,  Frontispiece,  fig.  I.) 

Linen,  the  fibre  of  the  flax  plant,  is,  like  cotton, 
tubular,  but  the  side  walls  are  much  thicker,  the 
central  canal  is  smaller,  and,  consequently,  the  fibre  is 
harder  and  less  spongy.  (See  Plate  II.,  figs.  3  and  4.) 

Papers  made  from  linen  rags  are  hard,  strong,  and 
firm  to  handle.  The  fibres  obtained  from  ropes  and 
bags  are  mostly  hemp,  and  are  somewhat  like  linen, 
but  much  more  coarse  and  harsh ;  as  they  are  seldom 
completely  freed  from  the  incrusting  matters  they 
require  to  be  boiled  with  a  larger  percentage  of  caustic. 

Jute  fibres  are  strong  but  very  difficult  to  bleach 
white,  and,  indeed,  if  subjected  to  such  treatment  as 
will  dissolve  all  the  extraneous  matter,  and  reduce  to 
ultimate  fibres,  their  original  strength  is  much  impaired. 

Manilla  hemp  yields  strong  fibres,  easily  detached, 
but,  like  jute,  somewhat  difficult  to  bleach  white.  (See 
Plate  I.,  Frontispiece,  fig.  2.) 

The  ultimate  fibres  of  esparto  are  short,  smooth, 
and  tubular,  but  in  some  places  the  central  canal  is 


Plate  II. 


FIG.  3. — LINEN  x  130. 


FIG.  4. — FLAX  x  130. 


[  To  face  page  6. 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF  FIBRES.  ^ 

completely  hidden  by  the  thickening  of  the  side  walls. 
(See  Plate  IV.,  fig.  7.) 

Straw  fibres  are  very  similar  in  appearance  to  esparto, 
but  they  are  shorter  and  more  highly  polished,  thus 
tending  to  make  their  felting  power  much  less,  and 
rendering  paper  made  from  them  very  brittle.  (See 
Plate  IV.,  fig.  8.) 

Wood  fibres  vary  with  the  different  species  from 
which  they  are  obtained  and  the  methods  used  to 
isolate  them.  Pine  wood  is  capable  of  yielding  long, 
soft,  transparent,  flexible  fibres,  well  suited  to  the  pro- 
duction of  strong  well-felted  papers.  Ash  and  similar 
trees  yield  short,  hard  fibres,  possessed  of  no  great 
felting  properties.  (See  Plate  III.,  fig.  5.) 


CHAPTER    II. 

CUTTING  AND  BOILING   OF  RAGS.— JUTE 
BOILING  AND  BLEACHING. 

Grading  of  Rags. — As  the  quality  of  the  finished  paper 
is  dependent  on  the  successful  carrying  out  of  the 
different  processes  through  which  the  stock  must  pass, 
it  is  indispensable  to  the  production  of  a  uniform  and 
satisfactory  result  that  the  greatest  care  be  taken  in 
each  department  to  ensure  the  intelligent  application 
of  the  principles  on  which  each  process  depends. 

Nowhere  would  a  neglect  of  the  requirement  of  each 
particular  class  be  more  disastrous  th'an  in  the  rag 
room,  which  may  not  inaptly  be  termed  the  birthplace 
of  the  varied  qualities  of  beautiful  papers  which  are 
met  with  in  the  market. 

Carelessness  in  the  regulations  of  the  standard  of 
each  particular  grade  of  rags  cannot  fail  to  lead  to 
mischievous  results,  as  in  such  circumstances  the  stock 
may  at  one  time  be  above  the  usual  quality  intended 
for  the  paper  made,  and,  at 'another,  much  inferior; 
and  yet  with  such  manifest  defects  the  paper  produced 


RAG-GRADING    AND    CUTTING.  9 

is  expected   "to    be   equal    to   last    making   in   every 
respect." 

The  only  remedy  for  such  a  state  of  matters,  which 
is  not  an  uncommon  one,  is  that  the  official  in  charge 
of  the  department  should  insist  that  the  cutters  and 
sorters  give  the  necessary  attention  to  the  strength 
and  cleanliness  recognised  as  the  standard  of  each 
grade.  If  this  be  done  consistently  and  intelligently, 
it  will  soon  make  itself  known  in  the  smoothness  with 
which  the  subsequent  processes  will  go  forward,  and 
in  uniformity  in  the  purity,  strength,  and  shade  of  the 
paper  made  which  will  far  more  than  repay  the  extra 
time  and  care  involved. 

Rag-cutting. — Though  the  rag-cutting  machine  has 
been  much  improved  of  late  years,  it  cannot  be  said 
to  have  superseded  cutting  by  hand,  especially  for  the 
better  qualities  of  paper. 

As  will  be  readily  understood,  the  rags  in  being  cut 
by  the  machine  come  far  less  under  the  supervision  of 
the  women  whose  duty  it  is  to  grade  the  different 
qualities  used  in  the  mill ;  and  this,  together  with  the 
fact  that  in  the  tearing  and  cutting  on  the  machine 
much  of  the  best  of  the  fibres  is  damaged,  presents  a 
serious  drawback  to  its  adoption. 

In  cutting  strong,  coarse  material,  such  as  canvas  and 
bagging,  these  defects  do  not  exist  to  the  same  extent, 
and,  though  they  did,  would  be  of  less  importance ; 
consequently  it  is  more  suited  to  that  class  of  stock. 


10  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

When  the  rags  are  run  straight  from  the  cutter  into 
the  dusting-machine,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  carrying 
felt  should  be  long  enough  to  admit  of  standing  room 
for  sorters  on  either  side,  so  that  any  extraneous 
material,  such  as  wool,  silk,  etc.,  which  may  have 
escaped  detection  when  feeding  in  the  rags,  may  be 
removed,  and  thus  prevented  from  finding  its  way  into 
the  boilers  and,  it  may  be,  into  the  finished  paper. 

Rag  Boiling. — The  object  in  subjecting  rags,  or  other 
paper-making  material,  to  the  process  of  boiling  is 
that  the  reducing  action  of  the  water,  aided  by  the 
temperature  and  pressure  employed,  may  break  up 
the  combination  of  the  cellulose  with  non-available 
substances. 

Caustic  soda  is  the  chemical  usually  employed  to 
render  this  action  more  thorough,  and  to  ensure  the 
complete  removal  of  all  the  incrusting  substances  which 
by  their  presence  tend  to  render  the  subsequent  bleach- 
ing process  much  less  effective,  and  to  otherwise  impair 
the  value  of  the  material. 

Rags,  which  have  already  been  subjected  to  such  a 
process  before  coming  into  the  hands  of  the  paper- 
maker,  require  to  be  treated  with  a  much  smaller 
amount  of  caustic  compared  with  such  raw  materials 
as  esparto  and  straw.  In  the  case  of  rags,  the  func- 
tion of  the  soda  is  to  remove  the  size,  which  is  often 
applied  to  the  fabric,  together  with  any  dirt  which  may 
have  become  attached  to  the  interstices  of  the  material 


RAG-BOILING.  II 

in  its  journey  from  the  textile  factory  to  the  rag  store, 
and  also  to  destroy,  as  far  as  possible,  any  colouring 
matter  and  render  it  more  susceptible  to  the  action  of 
the  bleaching  solution.  Caustic  soda  has,  in  addition, 
the  effect  of  softening  the  fibres,  thus  rendering  them 
more  flexible. 

As  the  feel  and  look  of  a  paper  depend  quite  as 
much  on  the  elasticity  and  complete  freedom  from  all 
incrusting  matters  of  the  original  fibres,  as  upon  the 
treatment  they  receive  in  the  subsequent  operations  of 
breaking  and  beating,  it  becomes  at  once  apparent 
that  what  at  first  sight  seems  a  very  simple  matter — 
namely,  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  caustic 
soda  most  suitable  for  each  material — is  in  reality  a 
somewhat  difficult  problem,  and  one  which  requires 
much  greater  consideration  than  is  usually  given 
to  it. 

The  physical  nature  and  condition  of  some  rags  may 
be  such  as  to  render  them  quite  inert,  and  of  little 
felting  power,  should  they  be  boiled  with  the  amount 
of  caustic  necessary  to  the  production  of  a  good 
colour  when  bleached.  The  wisdom  of  continuing 
to  use  such  materials,  even  though  obtained  at  a 
comparatively  low  price,  is,  to  say  the  least,  very 
questionable. 

Some  rags,  again,  which  from  the  standard  of 
cleanliness  may  not  require  a  large  proportion  of  soda, 
will  often  be  found  to  be  greatly  improved  by  using 
a  little  extra  per  hundredweight,  especially  when  the 


12  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

fibres  are  harsh.  The  softening  which  is  thus  ob- 
tained will  make  itself  apparent  in  producing  a  closer 
and  more  evenly  felted  sheet. 

With  regard  to  the  economy  of  using  low  quality 
rags  for  papers  in  which  a  good  colour  is  indispens- 
able, it  has  been  shown,  as  the  result  of  very  exhaustive 
experiments  carried  out  by  Messrs.  Wurster  and  Zugler, 
that  bleached  half-stuff  from  cheap  rags  is  in  the  end 
much  more  costly  than  that  obtained  from  the  better 
qualities,  notwithstanding  the  great  difference  in  the 
price.  As  much  as  18  per  cent,  of  loss  was  found  in 
the-boiling  and  washing  of  such  materials. 

Some  paper-makers  prefer  to  boil  their  stock  with 
lime,  in  place  of  caustic  soda,  and  this  is  especially 
the  case  in  America.  For  the  better  qualities  of  paper, 
however,  its  use  is  attended  with  very  serious  draw- 
backs. A  larger  proportion  of  lime  than  is  actually 
necessary  to  reduce  the  stock  must  always  be  used, 
and  as  this  excess  must  be  properly  washed  out  of  the 
rags  before  bleaching,  both  time  and  water  are  thus 
consumed. 

Gritty  matters,  such  as  sand  and  coal-dust,  are  in- 
variably present,  even  in  the  best  qualities  of  lime, 
and  these  are  apt  to  become  fixed  in  the  fibres  in  such 
a  way  as  to  render  their  complete  removal  a  matter  of 
some  difficulty. 

Lime,  as  is  well  known,  is  but  sparingly  soluble  in 
cold  water,  and  still  less  so  when  the  water  is  heated. 
One  part  of  lime  requires  seven  hundred  parts  of  cold 


RAG-BOILING.  13 

water  to  dissolve  it,  and  fifteen  hundred  parts  when 
the  temperature  is  raised  to  boiling  point. 

During  the  boiling  process,  however,  a  much  larger 
quantity  is  dissolved  than  would  appear  possible  at 
first  sight.  As  the  dissolved  lime  enters  into  combi- 
nation with  the  non-cellulose  portion  of  the  stock,  the 
water  becomes  capable  of  dissolving  a  further  quantity, 
and  so  the  dissolving  action  is  repeated  until  all  the 
fatty  and  resinous  matters  have  entered  into  combi- 
nation with  the  lime. 

In  preparing  coarse,  dirty  stock,  such  as  jute  and 
the  lower  grades  of  flax,  in  the  subsequent  application 
of  which  a  high  degree  of  cleanliness  is  not  of  the  first 
importance,  lime  may  be  used  with  advantage,  both  on 
account  of  its  cheapness  and  its  reducing  qualities. 

In  selecting  a  lime  to  boil  with,  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  grades  showing  the  same  percentage  of 
actual  lime  do  not  always  produce  a  uniform  result  in 
treating  the  stock.  Lime  which  is  light  to  handle, 
of  a  uniformly  white  colour,  and  which  slacks  easily, 
seems  to  possess  greater  reducing  power  than  a  dull- 
coloured,  heavy  lime,  as  less  of  it  is  required  for 
boiling,  and  the  pulp  produced  has  a  softer  feel. 

Caustic  lime  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  quickly 
absorbs  carbonic  acid,  and  the  carbonate  of  lime  thus 
formed,  in  addition  to  possessing  no  boiling  power, 
is  very  liable  to  cause  serious  complications  in  the  sub- 
sequent operations  by  adhering  to  the  fibres  even  after 
much  washing,  and  is  frequently  the  source  of  the  spots 


14  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING, 

which  at  times  appear  so  unaccountably  on  the  machine 
wire. 

Stationary  boilers  are  very  suitable  for  the  finer 
grades  of  cotton  and  linen  rags,  but  for  coarse,  dirty 
stock  the  rotary  action  of  the  revolving  boiler  is  of 
acjvantage,  as  the  shaking  thus  given  to  the  stock  has 
the  effect  of  loosening  the  dirt.  For  this  reason  it  is 
usually  employed  for  such  materials.  It  is  an  addi- 
tional advantage  if  the  boiler  can  be  fitted  with  a  system 
of  pulleys,  which  will  enable  the  revolving  action  to 
be  quickened  during  the  washing  which  follows  the 
running  off  of  the  spent  liquor. 

Jute  Boiling  and  Bleaching. — Jute  is  a  material  which, 
on  account  of  its  strength  and  cheapness,  would  receive 
much  more  extensive  application  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper  were  it  not  for  the  almost  insurmountable 
difficulties  which  lie  in  the  way  of  producing  from  it, 
at  a  reasonable  cost,  a  pulp  of  sufficient  whiteness 
to  be  used  in  the  making  of  fine  papers. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  bleaching  lies  in  the  fact  that, 
unless  the  boiling  process  has  been  conducted  so  as 
to  ensure  that  all  the  incrusting  matters  have  been 
dissolved,  the  amount  of  chlorine  consumed  before  these 
incrusting  substances  can  be  effectively  bleached 
more  than  counterbalances  the  low  price  of  the  raw 
material.  Apart  from  the  cost  of  bleaching,  the  use 
of  such  a  large  amount  of  chlorine  tends  to  impair  the 
strength  of  the  fibres. 


JUTE    BOILING    AND   BLE ACPI  ING.  15 

The  methods  of  boiling  and  bleaching  jute  vary  with 
the  particular  requirements  for  the  papers  to  be  pro- 
duced ;  but  in  mills  using  a  considerable  quantity,  lime 
is,  on  account  of  its  cheapness,  generally  employed  to 
effect  the  separation  of  the  non-cellulose  substances. 

Very  good  results  are  said  to  be  obtained  by  boiling 
the  jute  with  lime,  under  pressure,  and  then  allowing 
it  to  stand,  loosely  stacked,  in  contact  with  the  excess 
of  lime  that  has  been  used  in  boiling. 

After  standing  for  some  time  the  jute  is  washed  and 
again  boiled,  this  time  with  soda-ash  under  atmospheric 
pressure.  The  bleaching  is  conducted  in  the  usual 
way  by  means  of  the  bleaching  powder  solution ;  but 
instead  of  running  in  the  amount  necessary  at  one 
time,  it  is  run  in  in  small  quantities,  and  before  each 
supply  is  added  the  contents  of  the  engine  are  tested 
by  potassium  iodide  and  starch  papers,  to  ensure  that 
all  the  chlorine  has  acted  on  the  incrusting  substances. 
In  this  way  the  fibres  are  said  to  be  better  preserved 
in  their  original  strength. 

In  continental  mills,  where  the  old  method  of  gas 
bleaching  is  still  in  vogue,  jute  is  sometimes  subjected 
to  a  preliminary  bleaching  by  means  of  chlorine  gas, 
before  being  bleached  by  the  bleaching  powder  solu- 
tion. The  following  method  is  said  to  produce  a  very 
satisfactory  pulp. 

The  jute  is  boiled  with  a  solution  of  milk  of  lime,  at 
a  pressure  of  about  twenty-two  pounds  per  square  inch, 
for  ten  to  twelve  hours,  the  weight  of  lime  used  being 


1 6  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

about  15  per  cent.,  calculated  on  the  raw  material. 
After  draining  and  washing  the  boiled  jute  is  passed 
through  a  centrifugal  machine  and  so  freed  from 
moisture  as  to  be  readily  acted  on  by  the  chlorine  gas, 
which  is  the  next  feature  of  the  process. 

The  chlorine  gas  is  prepared  in  the  usual  way  from 
hydrochloric  acid  and  black  oxide  of  manganese,  and 
great  care  is  taken  that  none  of  the  hydrochloric  acid 
finds  its  way  into  the  bleaching  chamber,  otherwise 
the  pulp  would  be  rendered  less  strong.  The  jute  is 
stacked  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  readily  permeated  by 
the  gaseous  chlorine,  and  is  allowed  to  -remain  under 
its  influence  until  the  colour  of  a  sample  drawn  out 
shows  that  it  is  about  three-quarters  bleached. 

After  lifting,  the  partially  bleached  jute  is  washed  in 
the  potcher  with  water  containing  a  I  per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  ammonia  soda,  which  serves  to  dissolve  the 
yellow  chlorine  compound  that  has  been  formed  by  the 
action  of  the  gas  on  the  incrusting  substances.  This 
washing  completed,  the  stack  is  bleached  in  the  usual 
manner  with  from  6  to  8  per  cent,  of  bleaching 
powder  solution.  The  amount  of  time  and  handling 
necessary  for  such  a  method  as  that  described  would 
lead  to  the  supposition  that  it  is  very  doubtful  if,  in  the 
end,  such  methods  pay. 


CHAPTER   III. 

WET  PICKING.  —  WASHING,  BREAKING,  AND 
BLEACHING.  —  ELECTROLYTIC  BLEACHING. 
—ANTICHLOR. 

Wet  Picking1. — It  is  the  practice  in  most  mills  to 
subject  the  boiled  rags  to  another  overhauling,  or  "  wet 
picking,"  as  it  is  usually  termed.  The  idea  of  this  is 
to  insure  the  removal  of  any  buttons,  pieces  of  india- 
rubber,  or  other  unsuitable  materials  which  may  have 
been  overlooked  in  the  rag-house,  or  have  become 
apparent  through  the  action  of  the  soda,  before  the 
treatment  in  the  washing  engine  renders  their  detection 
and  removal  so  difficult  as  to  be  almost  impossible. 

Washing,  Breaking,  and  Bleaching. — These  three 
operations  are  usually  conducted  in  the  same  engine. 
The  washing  is  generally  accomplished  by  means  of 
a  drum  washer,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  effective 
and  time-saving  method  that  has  as  yet  been  adopted 
for  rags.  The  clear  water  should  be  run  in  so  that 
it  may  mix  with  the  rags  before  they  come  under  the 

17  2 


1 8  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

roll,  and  the  drum  should  be  placed  so  that  it  may 
rest  on  the  rags  just  as  they  have  rounded  the  end  of 
the  midfeather  on  the  return  journey.  This  is  not  so 
near  the  roll  as  to  run  the  risk  of  lifting  the  finest 
fibres  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  agitation,  nor  yet 
so  far  from  it  as  to  allow  the  dirt  to  settle  down  on 
the  rags  again. 

The  way  in  which  the  washing  is  conducted  deter- 
mines, within  certain  limits,  the  percentage  of  loss 
caused  by  the  finest  fibres  passing  away  with  the 
washing  water  through  the  meshes  of  the  wire  cover- 
ing of  the  drum.  Until  the  dirt  has  been  freed  from 
the  interstices  of  the  rags  the  roll  should  simply  brush 
them,  and  thus  by  opening  them  up  assist  the  water  in 
carrying  the  dirt  away.  If  the  roll  be  put  down  to  a 
hard  grip  before  the  dirt  has  been  loosened  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  wash  them  clean ;  and  further,  it  has  the 
effect  of  making  the  stuff  short  and  free,  or  fast,  as 
some  prefer  to  call  it,  thus  in  a  large  degree  impairing 
the  strength. 

There  are  two  conditions  indispensable  to  the  pro- 
duction of  strong,  flexible,  clean  half-stuff — namely, 
dull  tackle  and  plenty  of  time.  To  obtain  a  rag  at  its 
full  strength,  the  breaking  must  not  be  carried  further 
than  is  necessary  to  break  up  the  fabric.  When  that 
is  accomplished  the  roll  should  simply  brush  out  the 
half-stuff,  so  that  it  may  be  strengthened  by  the 
milling,  and  yet  kept  as  long  as  possible  consistent 
with  being  "out  of  the  rag."  This  can  only  be  ob- 


BREAKING  IN   HALF-STUFF.  19 

tained  by  having  blunt  plates  and  rolls.  The  bars  in 
the  plate  are  usually  tapered  away  to  one-eighth  of 
an  inch. 

If  the  roll  or  the  plate  be  too  sharp,  or  too  quickly 
brought  together,  the  fibres,  instead  of  being  drawn 
out,  will  be  cut,  and  rendered  so  free  that  they  will 
not  soften,  even  when  allowed  to  mill  for  five  or  six 
hours.  Thread  and  strong  rags  cut  with  the  rag- 
cutting  machine  are  very  liable  to  gather  into  lumps 
before  the  roll,  and  to  enable  them  to  travel  they 
have  to  be  gripped  more  firmly  at  first  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case.  When  they  have  begun  to 
travel  the  roll  should  be  raised  to  a  pitch  which  will 
not  reduce  them  too  much. 

When  the  colour  of  the  water  leaving  the  drum 
shows  that  the  dirt  or  colouring  matter  is  well  washed 
out,  a  good  plan  is  to  allow  the  drainings  from  the 
bleaching-house  tanks  to  run  on  the  rags  for  some 
time,  still  keeping  the  drum  in  action.  When  not  used 
for  this  purpose  the  drainings  may,  with  advantage,  be 
used  to  dissolve  fresh  quantities  of  bleaching  powder. 
When  the  dirt  or  colouring  matter  has  been  com- 
pletely washed  out,  the  drum  should  be  raised  and 
the  bleaching  solution  run  in.  If  it  should  happen 
that  the  bleach  is  added  before  the  washing  is  com- 
pleted, the  dirt  will  become  fixed  on  the  fibres  in  such 
a  way  that  no  subsequent  washing  will  serve  to  take 
it  out. 

Bleaching  powder,  or  chloride  of  lime,  is  made  by 


20  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

saturating  slaked  lime  with  chlorine  gas.  When  the 
compound  thus  obtained  is  dissolved  in  water,  bleach- 
ing liquor,  consisting  of  chloride  and  hypochlorite  of 
lime,  is  formed,  while  the  calcium  hydrate  is  left  as 
the  lime  mud.  Chlorine  gas  in  the  dry  state  possesses 
no  bleaching  properties,  but  in  the  presence  of  moisture 
it  decomposes  the  water,  taking  up  the  hydrogen  to 
form  hydrochloric  acid  and  liberating  the  oxygen. 

The  oxygen  thus  set  free  has  powerful  oxidising 
properties,  which  are  rendered  the  more  active  from 
its  being  in  what  is  technically  known  as  the  nascent 
state.  It  attacks  the  vegetable  colouring  matters,  and 
by  destroying  them  imparts  the  white  shade  charac- 
teristic of  bleached  stock. 

The  old  method  of  gas  bleaching  depends  on  this 
direct  action  of  the  chlorine  gas  when  brought  into 
contact  with  the  wet  half-stuff.  Unless  under  ex- 
ceptional circumstances,  bleaching  powder  has  quite 
superseded  the  gas-bleaching  method. 

This  is  due  to  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be 
applied,  as  well  as  to  the  increased  yield  of  pulp  ;  a 
much  larger  proportion  being  attacked  and  destroyed 
by  the  chlorine  gas  than  is  the  case  when  the  less 
drastic  action  of  the  hypochlorous  acid  of  the  bleaching 
solution  is  employed. 

When  the  materials  to  be  bleached  are  more  than 
usually  dirty  or  high-coloured,  heat  is  often  used  to 
assist  the  action  of  the  bleach  in  producing  a  good 
colour.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the 


BLEACHING   RAGS  21 

temperature  does  not  exceed  90°  Fahr.,  otherwise  the 
stuff  will  be  shortened,  and  the  colour  obtained  will 
go  back,  especially  if  allowed  to  lie  for  any  length  of 
time  before  using. 

Another  method  of  obtaining  a  good  colour  is  to 
add  to  the  stock,  while  in  contact  with  the  bleaching 
solution,  an  agent  which  will,  by  decomposing  the 
bleach,  render  it  more  effective.  Sulphuric  acid  is 
often  employed  to  do  this,  and,  within  certain  limits, 
it  has  the  desired  effect.  Its  use  is,  however,  attended 
with  the  serious  drawback  that  if  it  be  added  in  excess 
chlorine  will  be  liberated.  This  chlorine  attacks  the 
fibres  and  weakens  them.  When  only  a  small  quantity 
of  sulphuric  acid  acts  on  the  bleaching  solution,  hypo- 
chlorous  acid  is  liberated. 

Hypochlorous  acid  is  .decomposed  and  yields  its 
oxygen  very  easily,  and  in  so  doing  is  reduced  to 
hydrochloric  acid,  which  acts  less  injuriously  on  the 
fibres  than  chlorine. 

Sulphate  of  alumina  may  be  used  with  better  results 
in  preserving  the  strength  of  the  fibres,  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  action  being  less  violent  there  is 
less  tendency  to  liberate  the  chlorine. 

Professor  Lunge  uses  acetic  acid  to  gain  the  same 
end,  and  he  claims  that  there  is  no  impairing  of  the 
strength  of  the  fibres  as  is  the  case  when  chlorine  is 
liberated,  or  even  when  the  hydrochloric  acid,  which 
is  formed  from  the  decomposed  hypochlorous  acid, 
remains  in  contact  with  the  stock.  On  adding  acetic 


22  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

acid  to  the  engine,  the  bleaching  solution  is  decom- 
posed with  the  formation  of  hypochlorous  acid  and 
acetate  of  lime. 

The  hypochlorous  acid  gives  off  its  oxygen,  becoming 
reduced  to  hydrochloric  acid,  which  in  the  presence  of 
the  acetate  of  lime  immediately  acts  on  it,  regenerating 
acetic  acid  and  calcium  chloride.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  only  a  very  small  quantity  of  acetic  acid  need  be 
used,  owing  to  its  continuous  regeneration. 

Another  feature  of  importance  is  that  the  hydro- 
chloric acid  does  not  remain  long  enough  among  the 
stock  in  the  free  state  to  do  the  fibres  any  injury. 
In  the  case  of  rags,  which  have  been  imperfectly 
washed  and  thus  retain  a  large  proportion  of  alkali, 
it  is  recommended  that  a  less  expensive  acid,  such  as 
sulphuric,  be  used  to  neutralise  the  alkali  before  adding 
the  acetic  acid. 

In  bleaching  rags  containing  even  a  small  proportion 
of  jute,  no  auxiliary  agent  which  has  the  effect  of 
liberating  chlorine  should  be  used.  If  jute  be  treated 
with  chlorine  a  characteristic  yellow  compound  will  be 
formed,  and  it  is  the  formation  of  this  yellow  body  which 
is  the  cause  of  the  fading  in  the  colour  of  jute  con- 
taining stock  when  such  agents  as  sulphuric  acid  or 
sulphate  of  alumina  are  used  to  assist  in  bringing  up 
the  colour. 

Dr.  Lunge  claims  that  acetic  acid  may  be  added  to 
the  engine  before  the  bleach  is  run  in ;  but  with  the 
other  agents  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  adding 


BLEACHING   RAGS.  23 

them  to  the  pulp  after  the  bleaching  solution  has 
become  somewhat  exhausted. 

When  using  steam  it  is  better  to  allow  the  bleach 
to  become  thoroughly  mixed  before  heating  it.  The 
amount  of  bleach  required  to  give  a  good  colour  varies 
with  the  quantity  of  dirt  or  colouring  matter  to  be 
destroyed,  and  the  treatment  which  the  material  has 
received  in  the  boiler.  Imperfectly  boiled  stock  always 
consumes  a  much  larger  proportion  before  coming  to 
a  good  colour. 

Clean  cotton  and  linen  rags  will  require  from  I  to 
2  per  cent,  calculated  on  the  dry  bleaching  powder, 
while  the  coarser  grades  will  require  5  to  6  per  cent. 
The  addition  of  a  little  alumina  or  sulphuric  acid  to 
the  better  grades  of  cotton  and  linen  rags  has  the 
effect  of  killing  the  black  threads  often  present. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  bleaching  solution  be 
maintained  at  a  uniform  strength,  otherwise  the  colour 
will  not  be  regular  in  shade.  A  solution  which  stands 
6°  Twaddle  contains  about  half  a  pound  of  bleaching 
powder  to  each  gallon.  Bleaching  powder  seldom 
contains  more  than  about  35  per  cent,  available 
chlorine,  which  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  only 
35  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  powder  dissolved 
has  the  power  of  bleaching  the  stock. 

Owing  to  the  amount  of  calcium  chlorate  present  in 
some  bleaching  powders,  the  available  chlorine  does 
not  exceed  25  to  28  per  cent.  Calcium  chlorate  pos- 
sesses no  bleaching  power,  and  even  in  the  best  grades 


24  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

of  bleaching  powder  the  lime  mud  often  retains  a 
considerable  amount  of  chlorine.  In  storing  the  powder 
prior  to  dissolving,  it  should  be  kept  as  cool  as  pos- 
sible, as  it  is  very  liable  to  be  decomposed  with  the 
formation  of  unavailable  calcium  chlorate  if  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere  is  heated. 

The  most  suitable  vessel  in  which  to  conduct  the 
extraction  of  the  chlorine  is  a  circular  iron  tank  fitted 
with  a  mechanical  agitator,  so  as  to  insure  that  all  the 
powder  may  come  into  contact  with  the  water.  As 
chlorine  is  so  liable  to  be  decomposed  by  the  action 
of  light,  the  vessels  should  be  fitted  with  a  covering 
so  as  to  exclude  it  as  much  as  possible.  A  con- 
venient size  of  mixer  is  one  which  will  contain  about 
7  cwts.  of  bleaching  powder  and  900  gallons  of 
water. 

The  agitation  should  be  kept  up  for  at  least  two 
hours,  and  the  time  allowed  for  settling  should  not  be 
less  than  seven  or  eight  hours,  as  a  muddy  solution 
is  much  less  active  than  one  which  is  clear,  besides 
leaving  a  deposit  of  lime  on  the  fibres,  which  is  liable 
to  cause  unevenness  in  the  subsequent  sizing  opera- 
tion, and  to  cause  the  spots  which,  at  times,  are  such 
a  nuisance  in  the  machine  wire. 

After  the  first  liquor  has  been  run  off,  the  tank 
should  be  filled  up  again  with  water  or  weak  liquor 
drained  from  the  bleaching  house  tanks,  and  the 
agitation  and  settling  conducted  as  with  the  first 
extraction.  A  third  liquor  may  be  taken  off  and  used 


ELECTROLYTIC   BLEACHING.  25 

either  for  bleaching  or  for  extracting  a  fresh  supply 
of  bleaching  powder.  A  sufficient  number  of  mixers 
should  be  used  as  to  admit  of  running  off  a  first  and 
a  second  liquor  together,  and  a  third  also,  if  it  is  to 
be  used  for  bleaching,  otherwise  the  strength  of  the 
solution  as  used  at  the  potcher  will  not  be  uniform. 

By  draining  the  lime  mud  and  using  the  liquor  thus 
extracted,  either  to  dissolve  fresh  powder  or  to  mix 
with  the  bleaching  solution,  if  it  be  sufficiently  clean 
and  of  uniform  strength,  a  very  considerable  amount 
of  bleaching  powder  may  be  saved,  espec  ally  in  mills 
where  the  consumption  is  a  large  one. 

Electrolytic  Bleaching. — Within  the  last  few  years 
a  great  many  experiments  have  been  tried,  with  a  view 
to  superseding  the  expensive  bleaching  powder,  by 
making  use  of  the  electric  current  to  set  free  the 
oxygen  contained  in  water,  and  thus  make  it  available 
for  bleaching  purposes.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
oxygen  generated  from  water  by  electrolysis  has  the 
power  of  decomposing  colouring  matters.  The  chief 
difficulty  in  the  way  of  using  the  oxygen  thus  liberated 
lies  in  the  fact  that,  though  the  incrusting  matters  are 
certainly  removed  from  the  fibres,  they  are  liable  to 
assume  a  brown  colour  on  entering  into  combination 
with  the  oxygen.  This  brown  colour  can  only  be 
removed  by  using  chlorine  to  decompose  and  bleach  it. 

Another  method  of  bleaching  without  the  use  of 
chlorine,  which,  however,  is  still  in  the  experimental 


26  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING.       . 

stage,  consists  in  treating  the  stock  with  ozone,  or,  as 
it  may  be  termed,  "  active  oxygen."  When  an  electric 
spark  is  passed  through  a  jar  containing  air,  it  is  found 
that  the  oxygen  present  has  acquired  much  stronger 
oxidising  properties.  The  oxygen  which  has  under- 
gone this  change  has  been  named  ozone,  and  possesses 
much  more  effective  bleaching  power  than  ordinary 
oxygen. 

In  bleaching  with  this  agent  the  oxygen,  which  has 
been  in  contact  with  the  electric  sparks,  and  thus 
contains  a  larger  proportion  of  ozone,  is  led  by  a  pipe 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vat  in  which  the  stock  to  be 
bleached  is  placed.  In  its  upward  passage  through 
the  stock  this  ozonised  oxygen  is  said  to  destroy  the 
colouring  matters  so  effectively  that  its  advocates  claim 
it  to  be  70  per  cent,  cheaper  than  the  use  of  bleaching 
powder. 

In  another  class  of  processes  the  electric  current  is 
made  use  of  to  render  cheap  chlorine  compounds, 
such  as  chloride  of  magnesia,  available  for  bleaching 
purposes  by  liberating  the  chlorine  contained  in  them. 
The  process  which  has,  by  reason  of  its  practical 
application,  claimed  most  attention  from  paper-makers 
is  that  of  M.  Hermite.  The  bleaching  solution  used 
in  this  method  is  obtained  by  decomposing  a  5  per 
cent,  solution  of  magnesium  chloride  by  means  of  an 
electric  current. 

As  the  decomposition  proceeds,  magnesium  and 
hydrogen  are  given  off  at  the  negative  pole,  while  the 


HERMIT&S   METHOD.  27 

chlorine  and  oxygen  go  to  the  positive.  The  chlorine 
takes  up  the  oxygen  to  form  hypochloric  acid,  which 
is  in  turn  decomposed  with  the  formation  of  chlorous 
and  chloric  acids.  As  these  acids  yield  their  oxygen 
to  bleach  the  stock,  magnesium  chloride  is  again  formed 
and  again  decomposed  as  before,  thus  making  the 
process  continuous. 

The  loss  in  chemicals  is  made  up  by  the  addition 
of  fresh  quantities  of  the  magnesium  chloride.  The 
bleaching  solution  prepared  in  this  way  is  said  to 
possess  greater  bleaching  properties  than  a  solution 
of  bleaching  powder  containing  the  same  percentage 
of  available  chlorine. 

It  is  the  practice  in  some  mills  to  run  the  bleached 
stock  into  large  chests  fitted  with  perforated  bottoms, 
through  which  the  weak  liquor  is  allowed  to  drain. 
In  mills  where  a  large  stock  is  kept  the  rags  may  lie 
in  the  bleaching-house  for  weeks,  and  while  it  is  quite 
true  that  the  colour  will  come  up,  owing  to  the  action 
of  the  sunlight  in  decomposing  the  chlorine  compounds 
remaining  in  the  stock,  yet,  if  the  exposure  be  too 
long,  the  colour  will  go  back,  and  in  addition  the  rags 
will  become  tender,  owing  to  the  formation  of  the 
oxy-cellulose  by  the  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
in  the  presence  of  light. 

This  tendering  and  fading  will  be  more  apparent 
if  auxiliary  agents,  such  as  sulphuric  acid  or  sulphate 
of  alumina,  have  been  used  in  bleaching;  and  stock 
which  has  lain  for  a  considerable  time,  especially  if 


28  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

sulphuric  acid  has  been  used,  will  often  be  found  to 
have  taken  on  a  pinky  tinge. 

These  drawbacks  to  the  use  of  a  bleaching-house 
have  led  some  paper-makers  to  discard  it  altogether, 
and  to  run  the  lags  straight  from  the  breaking  engine, 
in  which  the  bleaching  has  been  conducted,  to  the 
beater. 

When  this  is  done  more  bleach  is  required  to  give 
the  same  degree  of  whiteness,  and  owing  to  the 
presence  of  an  increased  amount  of  bleach  in  the  un- 
drained  rags,  a  larger  quantity  of  antichlor  is  rendered 
necessary  to  neutralise  the  chlorine  than  is  the  case 
when  they  have  been  allowed  tb  drain  in  the  bleaching 
house  tanks.  The  ordinary  grades  of  cotton  and  linen 
rags  will  be  found  to  be  at  their  best,  both  as  regards 
whiteness  and  strength,  after  having  lain  for  twenty- 
four  hours  in  the  bleaching  house. 

Antichlor. — Whether  the  stock  has  lain  in  the  bleach- 
ing-house or  has  come  direct  from  the  washer,  it  retains 
chlorine  to  such  an  extent  that  the  latter  must  be 
neutralised ;  otherwise  its  presence  will  act  injuriously 
on  the  fibres,  besides  seriously  complicating  the  re- 
actions on  which  the  sizing  process  depends  for  its 
efficacy. 

The  two  forms  of  neutralising  agents,  or  "antichlors," 
as  they  are  termed,  most  commonly  used  are  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda  and  sulphite  of  soda.  When  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda  is  employed,  the  reaction  which 


ANTICHLOR.  29 

takes  place  may  be  represented  by  the  following 
equation : — 

2  Ca  C12  O2  +  Na2  S2  O3  +  H2  O  =  2  Ca  SO4  +  2  H  Cl  +  2  Na  Cl. 

which  shows  that  the  bleaching  solution  remaining  in 
the  pulp  is  decomposed  with  the  formation  of  calcium 
sulphate,  sodium  chloride,  and  hydrochloric  acid. 

The  formation  of  the  last-named  constitutes  a  draw- 
back to  the  use  of  this  agent,  as,  apart  from  its  injurious 
action  on  the  pulp,  the  acid  tends  to  eat  into  the 
machine  wire  and  so  shorten  its  life.  This  latter 
action,  however,  is  not  so  injurious  as  is  commonly 
supposed,  as  the  writer  knows  a  machine  the  wires 
on  which,  though  carrying  nothing  but  rag  stuff  treated 
with  the  hyposulphite,  run  for  thirteen  and  even  four- 
teen weeks. 

When  using  it  great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  an 
excess,  as,  though  not  generally  suspected,  the  reason 
why  so  many  photographs  become  stained  and  spotted, 
even  when  not  exposed  to  the  action  of  light  and  air, 
is  that  an  excess  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  has  been  used 
in  the  engine,  the  presence  of  which  in  the  cardboard 
used  for  mounting  has  caused  the  discoloration. 

A  glance  at  the  following  equation  will  show  that 
when  sulphite  of  sodium  is  used  none  of  the  resulting 
compounds  will  have  any  injurious  effect  either  on  the 
paper  or  the  wire : — 

Ca  O  C12  O  +  2  Na2  SO3  =  Ca  SO4  +  Na2  SO<  +  2  Na  Cl. 
Should  an  excess  of  sulphite  of  soda  be  used  in  the 


30  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

making  of  photograph  mounts,  it  is  asserted  that  no 
bad  results  will  ensue,  and  the  same  applies  to  all 
colouring  or  toning.  These  reasons  have  led  many 
paper-makers  to  adopt  it  in  preference  to  the  hypo- 
sulphite. It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that 
it  takes  about  four  parts  of  the  sulphite  to  do  the  work 
done  by  one  part  of  the  hyposulphite. 

When  using  rags  the  best  plan  to  ensure  the  com- 
plete neutralisation  of  the  chlorine,  without  using 
an  excess  of  antichlor,  is  to  supply  the  beater-man 
with  a  bottle  of  potassium  iodide  and  starch  solution, 
with  instructions  to  put  in  one-half  of  the  usual  amount 
of  antichlor  while  running  in  the  water,  and  after  the 
rags  are  furnished,  gradually  to  add  the  remaining 
half  until  the  blue  stain  produced  on  the  addition  of 
a  drop  of  the  testing  solution  to  the  pulp  has  grown 
faint  and  finally  disappeared.  To  make  this  test  satis- 
factory it  should  be  performed  before  the  addition  of  the 
alum,  otherwise  it  is  not  so  much  to  be  depended  upon. 

No  doubt  all  this  attention  means  extra  work  for 
the  beater-man,  but  there  are  few  beater-men  who,  if 
the  foreman  will  but  spare  the  time  to  explain  what 
the  neglect  of  the  precautions  may  lead  to,  will  not 
gladly  give  the  attention  necessary.  Such  care  will 
not  only  ensure  satisfaction  to  the  purchaser,  but  will 
also  save  the  beater-man  a  considerable  amount  of 
trouble,  in  giving  a  more  uniform  shade,  and  guarding 
against  the  unaccountable  rises  and  falls  in  colour 
which  are  of  so  frequent  occurrence  in  some  mills. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Plate  III. 


FIG.  5.— CHEMICAL  WOOD  x  130. 


I 


FIG.  6.— MECHANICAL  WOOD  x  130. 


[To  face  fstge  y. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

CELLULOSE   FROM   WOOD.— MECHANICAL   WOOD 
PULP. 

Cellulose  from  Wood, — Comparatively  few  paper- 
makers  in  this  country  prepare  their  own  wood  pulp, 
most  of  the  supply  being  obtained  from  the  Swedish  and 
Norwegian  pulp  mills.  A  knowledge  of  the  principles 
on  which  the  different  processes  for  obtaining  the 
cellulose  are  based,  and  the  effect  of  the  treatment  on 
the  pulp  produced,  is,  however,  indispensable  to  the 
paper-maker,  that  he  may  be  able  to  determine  which 
pulp  is  most  suited  to  his  particular  requirements. 

Wood,  like  jute,  belongs  to  the  class  of  ligno-cellu- 
loses,  and  is  composed  of  about  two  parts  of  cellulose, 
intimately  bound  up  with  one  part  of  non-cellulose  or 
lignin.  The  processes  employed  to  break  up  this 
combination  may  be  classed  under  three  heads.  First, 
the  alkali  process,  which  takes  in  the  methods  depend- 
ing on  the  use  of  caustic  soda.  Second,  the  acid 
process,  under  which  may  be  arranged  the  various 

3* 


32  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

methods  based  on  the  reducing  action  of  sulphurous 
acid  in  the  gaseous  or  liquid  state. 

Midway  between  these  two  classes  stand  those  of 
Dahl,  Blitz,  and  Cross,  the  former  of  which  employs 
a  solution  of  sodium  compounds  containing  a  large 
percentage  of.  sulphate  of  soda,  and  is  known  as  the 
sulphate  process.  The  process  patented  by  Cross, 
mainly  with  the  idea  of  rendering  the  use  of  lead- 
lined  boilers  unnecessary,  while  depending  on  the 
action  of  neutral  solutions  of  the  bisulphites  provides 
for  the  use  of  alkalies.  The  boiling  in  Blitz's  process 
is  conducted  by  a  solution  of  sodium  sulphide,  to 
which  is  added  a  very  small  proportion  of  vanadate 
of  ammonia. 

Whatever  may  be  the  process  employed  to  produce 
the  cellulose,  the  wood  must  first  undergo  a  preli- 
minary mechanical  treatment  in  order  that  the  pulp 
may  be  of  a  uniform  character.  The  trees  are  first 
sawn  into  small  logs,  which  are  then  stripped  of  the 
bark  and  cut  into  boards  by  passing  through  a  slitting 
machine.  The  knots  are  next  bored  or  cut  out,  and 
the  boards  broken  into  small  chips  by  a  breaking 
machine.  The  chips  are  then  passed  under  heavy 
rollers,  which  bruise  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow 
the  boiling  solution  to  thoroughly  soak  them,  and 
finally  passed  along  revolving  screens  through  which 
the  dirt  and  dust,  set  free  by  the  crushing,  escape, 
while  the  clean  chips  are  carried  on  to  the  boiler  or 
store  house  as  they  may  be  wanted. 


WATT  AND  BURGESS  PROCESS.  33 

The  caustic  soda  process  of  Watt  and  Burgess  may 
be  taken  as  the  typical  alkali  method  of  isolating  the 
wood  cellulose.  In  this  process  the  wood,  having  been 
subjected  to  such  a  treatment  as  that  described,  is 
digested  in  a  large  boiler  with  a  strong  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  under  a  pressure  of  about  ninety  pounds, 
for  ten  or  twelve  hours.  It  is  the  necessity  for  em- 
ploying such  high  temperatures  and  pressures  that 
constitutes  the  serious  drawback  to  the  alkali  pro- 
cesses, as  under  the  conditions  of  boiling  the  strong 
caustic  solution  acts  on  the  cellulose,  impairing  the 
strength  and  reducing  the  yield.  The  reason  why 
such  conditions  are  necessary  is,  that  the  soluble  acid 
bodies  resolved  by  the  caustic  become  so  oxidised  and 
condensed  that  they  counteract  and  weaken  the  reduc- 
ing action  of  the  soda,  and  in  order  to  equalise  their 
resistance  higher  temperatures  and  pressures  have  to 
be  employed. 

It  is  with  a  view  to  prevent  the  oxidisation  of  these 
acid  bodies  that  the  soluble  bisulphide  of  sodium  is 
used  by  Dahl.  Notwithstanding  the  presence  of  this 
reducing  agent,  the  pressure  employed  is  high.  It  is 
in  doing  away  with  these  counter-influences  that  the 
chief  advantages  of  the  acid  processes  lie.  By  using  a 
solution  of  a  bisulphite,  such  as  lime  or  magnesia,  the 
acid  bodies  are  removed  by  entering  into  combination 
with  the  base,  at  the  same  time  setting  free  the  sul- 
phurous acid,  which  acts  on  the  unresolved  wood,  until 
all  the  non-cellulose  substances  have  been  removed. 

3 


34  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

In  Ekman's  process  the  wood  is  digested  in  a  large 
lead-lined,  jacketed  boiler,  fitted  so  as  to  revolve  when 
desired.  The  solution  used  is  prepared  by  passing 
sulphurous  acid  gas,  produced  from  burning  sulphur 
in  a  stream  of  air,  up  through  a  tower  in  which  the 
magnesia,  with  which  it  combines  to  form  the  bisul- 
phite, is  loosely  spread  out.  A  stream  of  water, 
running  down  through  the  tower,  meets  the  sulphurous 
fumes  in  their  upward  course,  and  carries  them  into 
solution. 

Care  is  taken  that  the  sulphurous  acid  and  magnesia 
are  kept  at  the  proportions  necessary  to  produce  a 
double  sulphite.  The  strength  of  the  bisulphite  solu- 
tion thus  obtained  is  about  one-and-a-half  per  cent,  of 
magnesia  and  four-and-a-half  per  cent,  of  sulphurous 
acid.  When  the  steam  is  turned  on,  the  pressure  in 
the  inner  chamber  increases  with  greater  rapidity  than 
in  the  outer,  owing  to  the  tension  of  the  sulphurous 
vapour ;  but  it  is  said  that  the  best  results  are  obtained 
by  keeping  the  difference  between  the  two  pressures 
under  thirty  pounds. 

As  the  pressure  increases,  the  blow-off  cock  is 
opened  that  the  gases  may  escape,  and  thus  avoid 
over-heating  and  consequent  discolouring  of  the  wood. 
In  about  seven  or  eight  hours  the  pressure  reaches 
eighty-five  to  ninety  pounds,  and  after  about  three 
hours'  boiling  at  that  pressure  the  action  is  stopped, 
and  the  wood,  after  washing  and  draining,  is  ready  to 
be  bleached. 


PARTINGTON  AND  MITSCHERLICH  PROCESSES.   35 

In  the  Partington  process  the  sulphurous  gas  is  led 
into  tanks  containing  milk  of  lime,  and  a  bisulphite  of 
lime  solution  at  once  obtained.  By  this  method  the 
boiling  can  be  completed  in  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
hours,  though  in  some  cases,  when  increased  pressure 
is  employed,  the  time  required  is  a  little  less. 

While  the  principle  underlying  the  various  sulphite 
processes  is  the  same  in  each  case,  they  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  owing  to  the  duration,  or  rather  the 
differences  which  exist  in  the  duration,  of  boiling.  In 
what  are  termed  the  "  quick "  processes,  the  boiling 
is  completed  in  from  twelve  to  sixteen  hours.  To 
accomplish  the  complete  separation  of  the  cellulose  and 
the  non-cellulose  substances  in  that  time,  a  strong  acid 
solution,  at  a  high  temperature,  must  be  employed. 

In  the  Mitscherlich  process  the  solution  used  is 
much  weaker,  and  contains  a  greater  proportion  of 
base.  The  result  is  that  the  boiling  must  be  extended 
from  forty  to  sixty  hours,  and  the  pressure  is  also 
much  lower.  By  this  latter  treatment  it  is  claimed  that 
a  larger  percentage  yield  is  obtained  than  by  the  quick 
methods  of  boiling.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  see 
where  this  increase  can  come  from,  unless  the  inorust- 
ing  substances  are  imperfectly  removed,  and  so  add 
to  the  weight  of  pulp  produced.  If  this  is  the  case  it 
will  soon  make  itself  known  by  the  increased  amount 
of  bleach  necessary  to  give  a  good  colour. 

Wood  and  jute  show  a  close  analogy  in  chemical 
composition,  and  the  difficulty  experienced  in  bleaching 


36  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

wood,  from  which  all  the  incrusting  matter  has  not 
been  removed  by  the  boiling,  is  due  to  the  formation 
of  a  yellow  chlorine  compound  similar  to  that  produced 
when  chlorine  acts  on  jute.  This  yellow  body  must 
first  be  bleached  before  the  cellulose  is  brought  to  a 
good  white  colour,  and  the  amount  of  chlorine  neces- 
sary to  do  this  acts  very  injuriously  on  the  fibres. 

This  weakening  is  also  noticeable  in  highly  bleached 
sulphite  pulps;  and  though  the  degree  of  whiteness 
obtained,  by  using  a  large  amount  of  bleach,  makes 
such  pulps  suitable  for  the  better  qualities  of  paper,  it 
is  obtained  at  the  sacrifice  of  much  of  the  original 
strength  and  elasticity  of  the  fibres. 

Though  Dahl's  process  is  generally  known  by  the 
term  "sulphate/'  the  solution  employed  to  digest  the 
wood  contains  other  sodium  compounds.  It  is  prin- 
cipally composed  of  sodium  sulphate,  sodium  sulphide, 
and  sodium  hydrate,  and  the  strength  of  the  recovered 
solution  is  maintained  by  the  addition  of  fresh  quan- 
tities of  sodium  sulphate.  This  process  is  said  to 
possess  a  slight  advantage  over  the  caustic  alkali 
methods  in  point  of  economy;  but  it  is  the  general 
opinion  among  paper-makers  that  the  pulp  produced  is 
inferior  in  strength,  and  less  free  from  incrusting  sub- 
stances, than  that  obtained  from  the  sulphite  processes. 
Owing  to  the  presence  of  these  incrusting  matters 
sulphate  wood  is,  however,  more  suitable  for  the 
making  of  papers  which  are  wanted  opaque. 

During   recent   years    the   demand   for    "  sulphate " 


KRAFT  BROWN  PAPERS.  37 

pulp  has  increased  largely,  owing  to  the  development 
of  "  Kraft "  brown  papers,  which  have  entirely  super- 
seded certain  classes  of  browns  formerly  used  for 
wrapping  purposes.  The  remarkable  development  of 
the  Kraft  brown  branch  of  the  trade  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  Scandinavian  makers  were  quick  to  realise 
the  possibilities  of  pulp  specially  cooked  to  give  the 
required  characteristics. 

In  order  to  produce  a  pulp  suitable  for  the  Kraft 
papers,  the  boiling  is  conducted  so  as  to  ensure  that 
encrustating  matters  are  not  fully  resolved,  with  the 
result  that  the  fibres  are  not  injured,  and  retain  their 
original  strength  in  a  marked  degree. 

It  is  a  matter  of  much  discussion  among  British 
paper-makers  as  to  whether  the  characteristics  obtained 
in  the  finished  sheet  are  the  result  of  the  methods  of 
boiling  or  the  manner  of  beating,  but  it  is  probable 
that  they  are  due  to  a  judicious  combination ;  and  the 
fact  remains  that,  notwithstanding  painstaking  ex- 
periments on  the  part  of  British  makers,  no  Kraft 
yet  produced  in  this  country  combines  the  crispness 
and  elasticity  which  form  so  distinctive  a  feature  of 
the  Kraft  papers  produced  by  the  best  Scandinavian 
mills. 

Another  theory  held  to  account  for  the  superiority 
of  the  Scandinavian  product  is  that  the  change  in 
physical  properties  resulting  from  the  action  of  the 
hot  cylinders  of  the  pulp  machines,  when  the  pulp  is 
dried  previous  to  being  shipped,  constitutes  a  serious 


38  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

drawback  to  the  production  of  strong,  tough  paper. 
With  a  view  to  overcoming  this  defect  some  British 
makers  have  shipped  sulphate  pulp  containing  50  per 
cent,  moisture ;  but  notwithstanding  that  this  pulp 
was  specially  prepared  with  a  view  to  produce  Kraft 
papers,  the  results  cannot  be  said  to  have  justified  the 
increased  cost  incurred.  It  would  seem  that,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  the  by-products  in  the  boiled  pulp, 
the  time  allowed  to  elapse  between  the  finish  of  the 
cooking  and  the  beating  or  milling  operation  must  de- 
termine to  a  large  extent  the  properties  of  the  finished 
product.  Apart  from  such  considerations  as  to  boiling, 
the  ability  of  the  Scandinavian  makers  to  allow  a 
considerable  time  for  milling  the  pulp  in  kollergangs  or 
beaters  must  always  remain  a  very  considerable  asset 
in  their  favour  for  the  production  of  a  crisp,  tough 
Kraft  paper. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  samples  of  the  best 
Kraft  papers  will  show  that  the  individual  fibres  of 
the  Scandinavian  papers  are  much  longer  than  those 
in  the  papers  produced  by  British  makers,  and  it  is 
very  probable  that,  even  if  the  home  maker  could 
treat  his  pulp  so  as  to  retain  the  length  of  the  fibres 
in  the  like  degree,  the  product  would  be  lacking  in 
firmness  and  "rattle." 

It  would  thus  seem  that  the  well-known  character- 
istics of  the  Scandinavian  papers  are  the  result  of  the 
exceptional  conditions  under  which  they  are  prepared  ; 
and  having  regard  to  the  practically  unlimited  supply 


SCOTCH  WOOD  PULP  PROCESS.  39 

of  power  at  the  command  of  the  manufacturers  at  a 
nominal  cost,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  local 
conditions  lend  themselves  in  an  exceptional  manner 
to  the  requirements  most  desirable  in  the  case. 

In  a  Scotch  mill,  making  a  speciality  of  its  wood  pulp 
papers,  the  wood  is  treated  with  a  bisulphite  of  lime 
solution,  prepared  by  passing  the  sulphurous  fumes 
into  a  tower  containing  the  limestone,  through  which 
a  stream  of  water  is  kept  running.  With  the  solution 
thus  obtained  a  charge  of  eight  tons  of  wood  is  boiled 
in  a  large  rotary  boiler,  under  a  pressure  of  57  Ibs., 
for  seven  hours,  when  the  pressure  is  lowered  for  a 
few  minutes  by  opening  the  blow-off  valve  and  allow- 
ing the  volatile  compounds  to  escape,  and  again 
increased,  this  time  to  80  Ibs.  This  pressure  is 
maintained  for  twelve  hours. 

The  boiled  wood,  after  washing,  is  emptied  into  a 
large  pit  beneath  the  boiler,  from  which,  after  draining, 
it  is  lifted  into  boxes,  pressed,  and  taken  to  the 
breaker,  or  washer,  as  it  may  more  correctly  be  termed. 
After  washing,  by  means  of  a  drum,  the  wood  pulp  is 
emptied  into  a  chest,  from  which  it  is  pumped  to  flat- 
bottomed  strainers  similar  to  those  used  in  connection 
with  the  presse-pdte.  The  strainer  pulp  is  next  run 
into  the  potcher  in  which  the  bleaching  is  conducted. 

After  the  wood  has  received  a  preliminary  bleaching 
the  washing-drum  is  let  down,  and  the  chlorine  com- 
pounds, formed  by  the  action  of  the  bleach  on  the 
imperfectly  removed  incrusting  matters,  washed  out. 


40  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

After  this  washing  is  completed  the  amount  of  bleach 
necessary  to  bring  to  a  good  colour  is  run  in,  and 
when  the  colour  is  up  the  wood  is  emptied  into  the 
draining-chests,  where  it  lies  until  wanted. 

The  pulp  produced  by  this  process  is  strong,  and 
comes  to  a  good  colour  when  bleached.  It  has,  more- 
over, one  distinct  advantage  over  many  of  the  wood 
pulps  in  the  market,  in  that  it  comes  to  a  soft,  greasy 
condition  with  comparatively  little  milling,  with  the 
result  that  the  papers  made  from  it,  especially  the  lighter 
weights,  possess  a  strong  yet  silky  feel. 

At  the  present  time  considerable  attention  is  being 
directed  by  British  makers  to  the  soda  process,  owing 
to  the  introduction  and  increased  use  of  poplar  pulp 
produced  by  the  soda  process.  As  is  well  known, 
American  paper-makers  have  relied  on  poplar  and 
similar  soft  woods  for  the  production  of  papers  which  in 
this  country  are  made  mostly  from  esparto  grass,  and 
it  is  somewhat  curious  that  poplar  pulp  should  now 
be  a  recognised  material  for  blending  with  esparto  in 
British  mills. 

The  methods  employed  in  American  and  Canadian 
mills  for  the  isolation  of  the  poplar  fibres  by  means 
of  the  soda  process  differ  very  little  from  those 
originally  used  by  Watt  and  Burgess,  excepting  that 
the  tendency  is  to  increase  the  pressure  and  shorten 
the  time  in  boiling.  Owing  to  the  very  drastic  action 
of  the  soda  solution  when  employed  in  conjunction 
with  a  pressure  of  between  loo  Ibs.  to  iiolbs.,  the 


MECHANICAL  WOOD  PULP.  41 

time  employed  on  the  preliminary  processes  may  be 
curtailed  considerably,  the  knots  being  so  acted  upon 
as  to  be  easily  removed  by  the  strainers  on  the  pulp 
machine.  The  freedom  from  dirt  and  small  chips 
which  the  bleached  pulp  displays  when  being  reeled 
up  at  the  end  of  the  pulp  machine  is  very  striking. 

To  produce  a  good  colour  on  poplar  pulp  prepared 
by  the  soda  process  it  is  essential  that  the  washing  be 
sufficient  to  remove  the  combinations  which  have  re- 
sulted by  the  union  of  the  soda  with  the  acids  contained 
in  the  wood ;  and  in  order  to  effect  this,  the  method 
employed  is  very  similar  to  that  used  in  the  washing 
of  esparto  grass,  as  in  each  case  it  is  important  to 
ensure  that  complete  removal  of  the  objectionable 
compounds  without  unduly  reducing  the  strength  of 
the  liquor  to  be  subsequently  treated  in  the  recovery 
process. 

The  methods  of  boiling  and  bleaching  vary  slightly 
in  the  different  mills,  but  as  a  rule  a  well-boiled,  well- 
washed  poplar  pulp  wilL  come  to  a  good  colour  with 
about  12  per  cent,  of  bleaching  powder. 

Mechanical  Wood  Pulp, — A  large  portion  of  the  wood 
used  in  paper-making  has  been  subjected  to  no  chemical 
treatment,  and  is  known  as  "  mechanical  wood,"  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  pulps  produced  by  the  various 
chemical  processes.  The  mechanical  wood  is  obtained 
by  pressing  large  blocks  of  wood  against  revolving 
grindstones,  which  tear  the  fibres  from  the  mass.  The 


42  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

ground  wood  is  washed  from  the  stones  by  means  of 
a  continuous  flow  of  water,  and  carried  through  a 
series  of  screens,  in  which  the  dirt  and  small  chips 
are  separated  from  the  fibres. 

Though  the  blocks  of  wood  are  placed  so  that  the 
fibres  will  be  torn  laterally,  the  grinding  action  of 
the  stone  has  the  effect  of  making  them  very  short, 
and  this,  together  with  the  incrusting  matter  with 
which  they  are  surrounded,  deprives  them  of  their 
felting  power  to  a  large  extent. 

In  order  to  get  as  long  a  fibre  as  possible,  the 
wood  is  sometimes  steamed  for  ten  or  twelve  hours, 
previous  to  grinding,  that  the  fibres  may  yield  more 
readily  to  the  tearing  action  of  the  stone,  and  thus 
be  torn  at  a  greater  length.  At  best  the  pulp  thus 
produced  is  possessed  of  little  felting  power,  and  is 
not  suitable  for  any  but  inferior  grades  of  paper 
such  as  news  or  low  quality  printings. 

Apart  from  the  poor  felting  properties  of  the  fibres, 
the  lignin  contained  in  the  wood  is  acted  on  by  air 
and  light  if  exposed  for  any  length  of  time.  It  is 
this  oxidising  and  decomposing  action  which  is  the 
cause  of  the  discoloration  of  paper  containing  even 
a  small  proportion  of  mechanical  wood  pulp. 

Notwithstanding  these  serious  defects,  mechanical 
wood  is  largely  used  as  a  filling  material,  owing  to 
its  low  price  and  opacity.  Because  of  the  latter 
property  it  is  much  used  to  counteract  the  trans- 
parency of  papers  made  from  sulphite  wood.  As 


MECHANICAL  WOOD  PULP.  43 

much  as  70  per  cent,  is  often  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  news,  and  even  with  no  other  fibre  than 
30  per  cent,  of  sulphate  or  sulphite  wood  a  good 
news  is  produced. 

TABLE  OF  COMPOSITION  OF  WOODS  (MULLER). 

Birch.  Beech.  Lime.  Pine.  Poplar. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent.     Per  cent.  Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Cellulose       .         .  55-52  .     45-47  .  53-09  .  56-99  .  6277 

Resin  .         .         .     1-14  .  0-41  .  3-93  .  0-97  .  1-37 

Aqueous  extract  .     2*65  .  2-41  .  3-56  .  1-26  .  2*88 

Water.         .         .  12-48  .  12-57  .  lO'io  .  13-87  .  12-10 

Lignin           ,         .  28-21  .  39-14  •    29-32  .  2691  .  20-88 


CHAPTER    V. 

ESPARTO  AND  STRAW. 
ANALYSIS  OF  AIR-DRIED  SAMPLES  (MULLER). 


Spanish. 

African. 

Cellulose 

.    48^25  per  cent.     . 

.    45-80  per  cent. 

Fat  and  Wax 

•       2-07        „         .    . 

•      2-62       „ 

Aqueous  extract   . 

.     10-19        » 

«      9'8i        „ 

Pectous  substances 

•     26-39        „          .    .    . 

•     29-30       „ 

Water  .         .    j    '.. 

.       9-38        „ 

'  .      8-80       „ 

Ash       ... 

•       377        „             • 

.       3-67       „ 

A  GLANCE  at  the  foregoing  analysis  will  reveal  that  the 
amount  of  cellulose  contained  in  esparto  does  not  quite 
reach  50  per  cent.  That  means  that,  given  the  best 
working  conditions,  20  cwts.  of  esparto  will  not  produce 
much  more  than  9f  cwts.  of  paper. 

Before  this  amount  can  be  rendered  available  for 
paper-making,  the  10  cwts.  of  non-available  materials 
must  be  got  rid  of.  Not  only  do  they  require  to  be 
separated  from  the  cellulose,  but  they  must  be  re- 
moved in  such  a  manner  as  will  prevent  any  recombi- 
nation which  would  tend  to  injure  the  cellulose. 
Caustic  soda  has  been  found  most  suitable  for  this 


FIG.  7.— ESPARTO  x  130. 


Plate  IV. 


\ 


FIG.  8.— STRAW  x  130. 


[To  face  page  44. 


OF  TH 


UNIVERSt 


RATIONALE  OF  ESPARTO  BOILING.  45 

purpose,  both  on  account  of  its  reducing  and  com- 
bining power. 

When  esparto  is  treated  with  a  hot  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  the  gummy,  resinous,  and  waxy  sub- 
stances, together  with  the  silica  which  forms  the 
waterproof  coating  of  the  whole,  are  dissolved — the 
former  as  fatty  and  resinous  soaps,  the  latter  as 
silicate  of  soda.  The  percentage  turn-out  of  winter 
cellulose  will  be  less  than  of  that  cut  in  the  summer, 
for  this  reason,  that  the  winter  cellulose  will  contain 
more  moisture  than  the  summer.  This  being  so, 
it  will  require  a  smaller  quantity  of  soda  to  boil 
with. 

Before  purchasing  a  supply  of  esparto,  or  in  fact 
any  other  paper-making  material,  a  sufficient  quantity 
should  always  be  secured  to  admit  of  a  practical  test 
being  made,  so  that  the  paper-maker  may  know 
whether  the  amount  of  available  material  contained 
is  in  proportion  to  the  money  he  has  to  pay  for  it. 
A  neglect  of  this  precaution,  especially  in  a  mill 
where  large  quantities  are  used,  may  and  does  often 
mean  the  loss  of  a  considerable  amount  of  money 
in  a  year. 

After  the  bales  of  grass  have  been  freed  from  the 
hoops  or  ropes  with  which  they  are  held  together, 
the  small  bundles  are  fed  into  the  dusting  machine, 
which  breaks  them  up  and  dusts  them  at  the  same 
time. 

The   endless  felt   which  receives  the   dusted   grass 


46  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

as  it  leaves  the  duster  may  be  extended  so  as  to 
deliver  it  right  over  the  boiler  mouth,  and  should 
be  so  placed  that  space  enough  is  left  on  either 
side  for  sorters,  should  there  be  any  necessity  for 
removing  knots  and  roots,  which  might  become 
broken  up  by  the  action  of  the  soda,  and  so  pass 
through  the  strainers  of  the  presse-pdte,  and  cause 
black  or  brown  specks  to  appear  in  the  paper. 

Esparto,  owing  to  its  pectous  nature,  yields  with 
comparatively  little  resistance  to  the  reducing  action 
of  the  soda.  While  it  is  quite  possible  to  set  free 
the  cellulose  by  boiling  under  very  low  pressures, 
or  even  in  open  boilers,  it  is  necessary  to  use  strong 
solutions,  and  to  extend  the  treatment  over  a  much 
longer  time  than  is  required  when  the  pressure  em- 
ployed is  high. 

As  a  rule,  the  higher  the  pressure  employed  the 
less  soda  is  required  to  do  the  work ;  but  this  applies 
only  within  certain  limits,  as  the  use  of  high  pressures 
is  very  liable  to  induce  recombinations  of  the  non- 
cellulose  constituents  which,  in  addition  to  damaging 
the  pulp,  hinder  the  reducing  action  of  the  soda. 

If  vomiting  boilers  are  used,  the  work  of  boiling 
40  to  50  cwts.  of  grass  can  be  accomplished  in  2\  to 
3  hours,  under  a  pressure  of  from  30  to  40  Ibs., 
using  14  to  1 6  per  cent,  of  70  per  cent,  caustic 
on  the  raw  material. 

The  conditions  of  working  vary  in  nearly  every 
mill,  in  accordance  with  the  quality  of  the  paper  to 


ESPARTO  BOILING  AND  DRAINING.  47 

be  made,  so  that  no  hard-and-fast  rule  as  to  tempera- 
ture, duration  of  boiling  or  strength  of  solution,  can 
be  set  down.  It  should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind 
that  when  the  grass  used  is  difficult  to  bleach  it  is 
better  and  more  economical  to  boil  with  half  a  pound, 
or  even  a  pound,  more  caustic  per  cwt.  than  to  use 
extra  bleach  to  give  the  desired  colour. 

The  additional  caustic  will  not  impair  the  strength 
of  the  grass  unless  the  temperature  employed  be  much 
higher  than  usual,  while  it  will  have  the  effect  of 
softening  the  fibres  and  rendering  them  more  easily 
penetrated  by  the  bleach.  Extra  bleach  means  extra 
antichlor,  injury  to  the  presse-pdte  wire,  and,  in  a  marked 
degree,  weakening  of  the  original  strength,  together 
with  the  production  of  much  powdery  fibre. 

Whatever  be  the  material  treated,  concentrated  solu- 
tions of  caustic  soda  perform  the  work  much  more 
expeditiously  and  effectively  than  dilute  ones ;  so  that 
a  better  result  will  be  obtained  by  putting  in  as  large 
a  quantity  of  the  material  as  possible,  thus  leaving  less 
space  to  be  filled  up  with  water,  than  by  boiling  a 
smaller  amount  with  a  more  dilute  solution. 

After  the  boiling  is  completed,  the  steam  from  the 
blow-off  should  be  used  to  heat  the  water  to  be  used 
for  washing. 

When  all  the  spent  lye  has  been  run  to  the  roaster 
tanks,  assuming  that  it  is  to  be  evaporated  and  re- 
covered, the  grass  should  be  treated  with  hot  water, 
the  hotter  the  better,  as  when  hot  it  frees  the  fibres 


48  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

from  the  fatty  and  soapy  substances  which  still  cling 
to  them. 

After  standing  for  some  time,  this  first  water,  as  it 
is  usually  termed,  is  also  run  to  the  roaster  and  the 
boiler  filled  with  clean  cold  water,  which  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  contact  with  the  fibres  until  it  is  required. 
When  this  last  water  is  run  off  it  may  be  pumped  to 
the  blow-off  tank,  there  to  be  heated  by  the  blow-off 
steam,  and  used  as  a  first  water  for  the  next 
boiling. 

In  some  mills  the  grass  is  taken  straight  from  the 
boiler  to  the  potcher,  where  it  is  washed  by  means 
of  a  drum  similar  to  that  used  for  washing  rags. 
Many  paper-makers  object  to  this  method  of  washing, 
as  a  large  proportion  of  the  finest  fibres  are  very 
liable  to  pass  through  the  meshes  of  the  wirecloth 
covering  and  be  carried  away  with  the  washing  water. 

Very  good  results,  both  for  cleanliness  and  yield  of 
fibre,  are  obtained  when  the  grass  is  washed  in  a 
system  of  tanks  connected  together  in  such  a  way 
that  the  water  after  rising  to  the  top  of  the  one  passes 
to  the  other,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  series.  The 
motion  of  the  water  is  so  slow  that  sufficient  time  is 
given  to  clean  the  grass  without  carrying  away  the 
finest  fibres. 

When  the  grass  in  each  chest  is  washed  clean,  the 
pipe  connecting  it  with  the  next  one  is  closed,  and 
the  water  drained  away  through  the  perforated  false 
bottom  formed  of  iron  plates.  The  grass  generally  lies 


ESPARTO  WASHING  AND  BLEACHING.  49 

in  the  chest  for  twenty-four  hours,  but  can  be  washed 
much  quicker  when  required. 

Another  system  of  washing,  said  to  give  very  good 
results,  is  that  of  treating  the  grass  in  the  boiler  with 
cold  water  under  pressure.  The  pressure  is  main- 
tained by  a  force  pump,  and  the  outlet  is  into  a  tank 
above  the  boiler.  This  water  can  be  heated  and  used 
to  wash  the  next  boiling. 

In  some  mills  the  grass  is  washed  in  the  boiler  by 
blowing  a  blast  of  air  into  the  water,  and  thus  creating 
sufficient  agitation  to  free  the  fibres  from  the  non- 
cellulose  substances  which  still  cling  to  them.  In  this 
way  a  boiling  can  be  well  washed  in  four  hours  when 
the  water  is  changed  three  or  four  times.  The  chief 
advantage  of  washing  in  the  boiler  lies  in  the  saving 
of  time  and  labour  effected,  as  compared  with  the 
washing  in  tanks. 

When  steam  is  used  to  aid  in  bringing  up  the 
colour  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  overheat,  or 
the  strength  will  be  impaired  and  the  colour  go  back. 
Eight  cwts.  of  grass,  reckoned  on  the  raw  material, 
should  be  perfectly  bleached  in  about  2  or  2\  hours 
with  about  8  per  cent,  of  bleach. 

The  bleach  should  be  run  in  with  the  water  while 
furnishing,  and  when  full  the  steam  should  be  turned 
on.  When  the  heat  is  up,  which  will  be  in  about 
twenty  minutes,  it  should  be  turned  off.  The  steam 
cocks  should  be  perfectly  tight,  as  if  they  allow  steam 
to  pass  when  shut  the  grass  will  be  in  danger  of  being 

4 


50  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

overheated,  and  this  is  especially  so  when  it  is  left 
standing  in  the  potcher  for  any  length  of  time.  The 
same  care  must  be  taken  in  using  the  antichlor,  as  is 
necessary  with  rags,  that  no  excess  be  present. 

It  is  the  practice  in  some  mills  to  run  the  grass  over 
the  presse-pdte  before  bleaching,  so  that  the  wire  may 
not  be  damaged  by  the  acid  set  free  when  the  antichlor 
decomposes  the  bleach.  Unless  the  grass  has  been 
properly  boiled,  the  roots  and  hard  ends  will  not  yield 
to  the  action  of  the  bleaching  solution,  and  owing  to 
the  hardness  of  the  fibres  they  will  not  go  through 
the  plates  of  the  presse-pdte  strainer. 

Though  the  percentage  of  cellulose  contained  in  straw 
is  nearly  as  high  as  that  from  esparto,  the  yield  of 
available  paper-making  material  is  not  so  high.  Owing 
to  the  chemical  and  physical  characteristics  of  straw, 
it  requires  to  be  boiled  with  a  larger  proportion  of  soda 
than  is  necessary  for  esparto.  The  compound  cellulose, 
which  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  straw  plant,  contains 
a  greater  proportion  of  lignin  than  the  esparto  cellu- 
lose, and  ligno-cellulose  is  much  less  susceptible  to  the 
reducing  action  of  the  caustic  than  pecto-cellulose. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  knots  must  be  so  reduced 
in  boiling  that  the  bleaching  solution  will  be  able  to 
saturate  them  without  using  an  excessive  quantity. 
The  effect  of  this  extra  soda  is  that  the  finest  fibres 
are  liable  to  be  carried  away  with  the  washing  water, 
and  thus  the  yield  is  often  as  much  as  10  per  cent, 
less  than  that  from  esparto 


STRAW  BOILING.  51 

Straw  is  usually  boiled  in  rotary  boilers,  as  by  using 
them  the  pulp  is  so  reduced  as  to  run  through  a  pipe 
into  the  steeping  tanks,  and  thus  the  lifting  from  the 
boilers  is  saved.  The  boiling  pressure  is  also  higher 
than  for  grass,  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  being  often  employed. 

The  boiled  straw  may  be  washed  in  large  cement- 
covered  tanks,  and  after  draining  be  dug  out  and  taken 
to  the  potcher  to  be  bleached  in  the  ordinary  way. 
When  it  is  to  be  used  in  the  mill  it  may  be  run  straight 
to  the  bleaching  house  to  drain  until  wanted,  but  it 
is  usually  run  over  the  presse-pdte  in  the  same  way 
as  grass. 

Papers  made  from  straw  are,  owing  to  the  hard 
nature  of  the  ultimate  fibres,  very  hard  and  brittle. 
This  want  of  flexibility  is  as  much  owing  to  the  smooth, 
highly-polished  surface  of  the  fibres,  as  to  their  short- 
ness and  stiffness.  When  5  or  6  per  cent,  of  good, 
clean  straw  pulp  is  used,  the  paper  gets  a  firmer  grip 
and  rattle. 

Straw  also  helps  the  sizing,  probably  owing  to  the 
pores  of  the  paper  being  filled  up  with  the  fine  fibres, 
as  much  as  to  its  hardness,  but  it  is  not  suitable  for 
papers  which  are  wanted  to  bulk  well. 

ANALYSIS  OF  STRAW  (MULLER). 

Winter  wheat.  Winter  rye. 

Cellulose          .         .         .  46-60  per  cent.  .  47^69  per  cent 

Fat  and  wax  .         .         .       1*49         „  .  1-93         „ 

Aqueous  extracts   .         .       8*07        ,,  .  0*05          f 

Non-cellulose  or  lignin  .  28-49        •»  •  26'75         »» 

Water     ....       9-85         „  .  11-38         „ 

Ash         .  .        .       5-50        „  .  3-20        „ 


CHAPTER  VI. 
BEATING. 

IT  is  an  accepted  principle  that  in  order  to  produce  a 
paper  which  will  have  strength  and  .  tearing  strain 
the  fibres  must  be  kept  long  in  the  beater ;  and  more 
especially  does  this  apply  to  such  thin  papers  as  banks 
and  loans.  While  it  is  quite  true  that  long  fibres  do 
give  these  qualities  to  the  papers  made  from  them,  it 
is  also  true  that  the  fibres  may  be  kept  long  and  yet 
the  paper  produced  possess  less  firmness  and  tensile 
strength  than  if  they  had  been  kept  finer. 

Whether  the  fibres  be  long  or  short  when  they 
reach  the  machine,  the  properties  of  the  paper  made 
depend  on  the  treatment  they  receive  during  the  first 
hour-and-a-half  in  the  beater.  If  the  roll  be  put  sharply 
down  on  the  plate  at  first,  the  fibres,  while  still  retaining 
their  length,  will  become  weakened,  and  the  sheet  will 
have  a  raw,  soft  feeling,  which  even  the  addition  of 
more  than  the  usual  amount  of  starch  will  not  over- 
come. 

Such   stuff  is  generally  termed   "fast"  or  "free"; 

52 


LONG   AND   SHORT  FIBRES.  53 

and  though  for  certain  classes  of  papers,  such  as  thick 
chromos  and  lithos,  the  thickness  of  which  renders 
strength  and  firmness  in  the  ultimate  fibres  a  matter 
of  less  importance,  free  stuff  is  desirable,  yet  the 
beater-man  should  try  to  temper  the  stuff  so  as  to 
preserve  as  far  as  possible  the  original  strength  and 
elasticity  of  the  fibres. 

The  rawness  referred  to  is  also  very  noticeable  in 
papers  made  from  esparto,  to  which  have  been  added 
I  or  2  per  cent,  of  strong  rags.  In  the  beating  of  such 
stuff,  especially  if  the  paper  be  thin,  the  idea  that 
length  means  strength  is  often  so  much  developed  that 
when  the  pulp  reaches  the  strainer  a  large  proportion 
of  the  rag  stuff  refuses  to  go  through. 

A  little  consideration  of  the  subject  will  show  that 
the  behaviour  of  the  fibres  under  the  influence  of  the 
shake,  as  they  are  carried  along  the  wire,  has  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  whether  the  sheet  be  strong  or  the 
reverse.  If  a  sheet  of  thin  paper  be  placed  under  the 
microscope,  it  will  at  once  be  seen  that  there  exist 
between  the  fibres  spaces  which  seem  to  be  filled  with 
some  transparent  non-fibrous  material. 

The  longer  the  fibres  the  more  apparent  do  the  spaces 
become,  and,  however  minute,  their  presence  must  tend 
to  weaken  the  sheet.  When  the  fibres  are  a  shade 
finer,  the  finest  of  them  will,  under  the  influence  of  the 
shake,  settle  down  into  these  spaces,  thus  making  the 
sheet  more  closely  felted. 

This  is  the  reason  that,  when  using  broke  from  the 


54  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

edgerunner,  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  loading  is 
carried  in  comparison  with  the  amount  retained  when 
no  broke  is  used.  Edgerunner  broke  is  generally 
reduced  to  such  a  state  of  fineness  consequent  on  its 
having  been  under  the  action  of  the  roll  so  often  that 
it  floats  on  the  surface  when  on  the  wire ;  and  in 
addition  to  the  shake,  the  suction  of  the  pumps  tends 
to  draw  the  very  fine  fibres  which  compose  it  into 
the  spaces  referred  to. 

In  filling  up  these  spaces,  not  only  do  the  fine  fibres 
greatly  assist  in  making  a  close  and  evenly  felted  sheet, 
but  by  their  presence  they  also  prevent  the  loading 
materials  from  passing  through  the  meshes  of  the  wire 
as  they  would  otherwise  be  very  liable  to  do. 

It  is  in  the  making  of  such  papers  as  banks  and 
loans  that  the  ill  effects  of  keeping  the  stuff  too  long 
become  most  apparent ;  and  this  is  especially  the  case 
if  the  strainer  plates  used  for  the  ordinary  fine  stuff  are 
expected  to  take  through  the  long  rag  stuff  equally 
well. 

The  rubbing  of  the  plates  which  is  essential  in  such 
circumstances,  in  order  to  keep  them  from  clogging  up 
altogether,  has  the  effect  of  completely  spoiling  what 
would  under  other  conditions  be  a  clean,  strong  sheet, 
by  peppering  it  with  dirt  and  knots.  Only  those  who 
have  had  the  working  of  such  stuff  can  fully  appreciate 
the  improvement  which  a  finer  engine  will  make  in 
regard  to  the  appearance  and  strength  of  the  sheet. 

It  will  be  more  mellow,  strong,  and  clean,  and  not 


FREE   AND    SOFT  STUFF.  55 

least  of  the  advantages  derived  will  be  the  giving  of 
more  time  to  the  machine-man  to  run  steady  weight, 
unhampered  by  the  flooding  and  thinning  which  are 
unavoidable  in  such  a  case. 

In  preparing  stuff  for  thick  papers,  such  as  chromo 
and  litho  printing,  the  roll  must  be  put  down  from 
the  first,  that  the  stuff  may  be  fine  and  free,  and  so 
part  with  the  water  easily  and  give  a  close,  evenly 
felted  sheet.  To  insure  that  the  stuff  will  not  be  too 
soft,  it  should  not  run  more  than  three  or  three-and- 
a-half  hours  in  the  beater. 

Stock  intended  for  thin,  strong  papers  must  be 
drawn  out  and  milled  in  the  washer  for  at  least  six 
hours,  and  in  the  beater  for  ten  or  twelve  hours. 
Blunt  plates  and  rolls  are  necessary  for  the  milling 
of  such  stuff,  as  a  sharp  plate  or  roll  would  cut 
it  up  too  much,  and,  making  it  free,  prevent  it  from 
softening  properly. 

In  preparing  long  greasy  stuff,  intermediate  beaters 
possess  this  advantage :  that  by  having  blunt  plates 
and  rolls  in  the  first  engine,  the  stuff  is  milled  in  such 
a  way  as  to  render  the  fibres  long  and  flexible,  and 
capable  of  imparting  a  soft,  silky  feel  to  the  papers 
made  from  them ;  while  in  the  second  engine  they  can 
be  reduced  to  the  required  length  when  they  are  in 
such  a  condition  owing  to  the  first  treatment  that  the 
cutting  action  of  the  sharper  tackle  will  not  impair 
their  strength. 

Several  engines  having  the  same  end  in  view  are  used 


56  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

in  American  paper-mills ;  and  one  of  these  beaters,  or 
"  perfecting  engines/'  as  they  are  terme'd,  is  becoming 
pretty  well  known  to  paper-makers  in  this  country 
under  the  name  of  Marshall's  perfecting  engine.  The 
author  was  running  the  machine  to  which  it  was 
attached  when  first  tried  in  the  mill  where  he  served 
his  apprenticeship,  and  had  therefore  a  good  oppor- 
tunity of  judging  its  merits. 

The  engine  consists  of  a  conical  cylinder,  the  inside 
of  which  is  fitted  with  steel  bars  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  the  bed-plate  of  the  beating  engine. 
Inside  this  cylinder  a  conical  roll,  also  fitted  with  steel 
knives,  revolves  at  a  high  speed,  and  as  the  stuff 
passes  between  the  roll  and  the  bars  on  the  inside 
of  the  cylinder,  it  may  be  reduced  to  any  degree  of 
fineness.  On  reaching  the  end  of  the  shell  the  stuff 
is  made  to  pass  between  a  revolving  and  a  stationary 
disc,  both  of  which  are  fitted  with  knives. 

The  action  of  this  disc  or  brush,  as  it  is  called, 
serves  to  rub  out  all  knots  and  chips  in  much  the 
same  way  as  does  the  rubbing  of  the  roll  in  the 
ordinary  beater.  This  beater  possesses  all  the  advan- 
tages of  the  intermediate  system,  while  requiring  much 
less  space  and  driving  power  compared  with  it. 

In  the  preliminary  treatment  necessary  in  the  ordi- 
nary beater,  before  passing  the  stuff  through  the 
perfecting  engine,  the  roll  should  be  let  down  to  a 
little  more  than  a  rub — just  sufficient  to  mill  the  stuff 
is  all  that  is  required.  When  emptying  to  the  chest, 


MARSHALL'S    PERFECTING   ENGINE,  57 

from  which  the  perfecting  engine  is  supplied,  much 
less  water  must  be  put  down  than  is  usual  when 
emptying  to  the  machine  chests;  the  reason  for  this 
being  that  the  thicker  the  stuff  is  in  its  passage  through 
the  engine  the  better  does  it  accomplish  its  work. 

As  the  pulp  after  passing  through  the  engine  flows 
into  the  machine  chests  in  a  continuous  stream,  the 
weight  is  more  constant ;  and  when  it  does  alter  one 
way  or  another  it  does  so  very  gradually,  thus  insuring 
that  the  machine-man  will  notice  and  correct  it  before 
it  can  have  much  effect  on  the  sheet.  If  the  pulp 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  grass,  it  should  be 
diluted  by  running  in  a  stream  of  water  as  it  leaves 
the  perfecting  engine,  and  thus  prevented  from  running 
into  knots  in  the  chest. 

When  the  stock  consists  of  materials  which  are  not 
fitted  to  bear  the  same  beating  strain,  it  is  better  to 
beat  them  in  separate  engines.  Of  course  it  is  not 
always  convenient  to  do  this,  especially  when  the  pro- 
portion of  strong  or  weak  stock  is  small.  To  treat 
such  a  small  proportion  separately  would  keep  back 
the  other  engines  too  long,  in  addition  to  changing 
the  proportions  in  the  finished  sheet. 

In  order  to  reduce  good  Spanish  grass  to  fine  stuff, 
it  requires  a  firmer  treatment  with  the  roll  than  most 
of  the  rags  which  are  mixed  with  it  would  get  if  treated 
in  a  separate  engine,  and  this  should  be  taken  into 
account  when  selecting  the  rags  to  be  used  along  with 
it.  When  the  stock  consists  wholly  or  in  large  pro- 


58  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

portion  of  chemical  wood,  the  engines  must  not  be 
heavily  loaded  nor  allowed  to  run  long  in  the  mill,  as 
the  wood  is  reduced  very  easily  and  soon  becomes 
greasy. 

For  medium  weights  of  all  wood-papers  three  hours 
is  quite  sufficient,  and  for  the  lightest  weights  eight 
hours.  When  it  is  especially  desired  that  the  paper 
should  not  crack  when  folded  the  time  may  be  ex- 
tended to  six  hours ;  but  in  that  case  the  machine  will 
have  to  go  slower  in  order  to  allow  of  the  water  being 
taken  out.  Some  wood  pulps,  however,  are  much 
more  difficult  to  soften  than  others,  and  even  after 
milling  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  still  tend  to 
be  free.  This  is  in  all  probability  due  to  the  treatment 
in  boiling  or  bleaching,  or  perhaps  in  both,  having 
been  too  drastic,  with  the  result  that  the  natural 
elasticity  of  the  fibres  has  been  impaired. 

When  making  unsized  papers  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  sheet  tears  much  better  than  a  sized  sheet  from 
fibres  of  a  similar  fineness  will  do.  This  affords  con- 
clusive evidence  that,  within  certain  limits,  it  is  the 
flexibility  and  softness  of  the  fibres,  more  than  their 
length,  that  give  tearing  strain  to  a  sheet. 

The  unsized  fibres  are  not  coated  with  the  resinate 
of  alumina  used  to  size  with,  and  therefore  retain  their 
natural  elasticity  and  tensile  strength.  When  under 
the  action  of  the  shake  the  unsized  fibres  are  more 
closely  felted  than  would  be  possible  were  they 
stiffened  by  the  size-coating,  and  this  is  more  notice- 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   BEATER.  59 

able  if  the  sheet  be  torn  across  the  wire  instead  of 
down  its  length. 

When  a  sheet  of  paper  is  torn  the  fibres  are  not 
broken,  they  are  simply  pulled  asunder,  and  it  is  for 
this  reason  that  it  always  "skins"  better  when  torn 
down  the  wire  than  across  its  length.  Stuff  for 
blotting-papers  must  be  cut  up  as  quickly  as  possible 
in  the  beater,  and  run  not  longer  than  an  hour  and 
a  half  in  the  mill.  The  beater  must  be  light  loaded, 
and  the  stuff  kept  constantly  travelling,  otherwise  it 
will  not  have  a  uniform  absorbing-power. 

Soft  cotton  rags  are  generally  the  stock  from  which 
blottings  are  prepared.  Manilla  hemp,  owing  to  its 
soft,  lustrous  nature,  and  the  width  of  the  central  canal, 
should,  with  proper  treatment,  be  possessed  of  good 
absorbing  qualities. 

Whatever  be  the  shape  or  size  of  a  beater,  it  must 
be  so  constructed  that  no  stuff  will  lodge  in  any  part 
of  it,  and  for  all-round  work  it  must  have  a  roll  heavy 
enough  to  thoroughly  soften  the  pulp  and  keep  it  in 
constant  motion.  If  a  beater  of  large  capacity  is 
desired,  Forbes's  patent  double-roll  beater  possesses 
all  the  requirements,  with  the  exception  that  the  rolls 
are  not  heavy  enough ;  but  with  heavier  rolls,  and  the 
speed  of  the  lifter  no  faster  than  is  necessary  to  ensure 
good  travelling,  the  pulp  produced  will  be  of  a  very 
uniform  character. 

It  is  the  practice  in  some  mills  to  wash  the  inside 
of  the  beating  engines  with  soda  ash,  and  even  caustic 


60  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

lye,  when  changing  colours,  with  the  result  that  the 
smooth  skin,  which  coats  the  sides,  is  rendered  quite 
rough.  This  roughness  retards  the  passage  of  the 
pulp  in  a  way  that  is  almost  incredible  to  those  who 
have  not  witnessed  its  effects.  Not  only  does  such 
washing  interfere  with  the  travelling,  but  it  is  the 
worst  thing  possible  for  causing  rust  spots  to  appear 
in  the  paper. 

Under  none  but  the  most  exceptional  circumstances 
should  the  rolls  or  sides  of  the  beaters  be  subjected 
to  any  washing  or  scraping  which  will  tend  to  break 
up  the  enamel-like  surface  which,  if  let  alone,  the 
continual  contact  with  the  moving  stuff,  and  the 
chemicals  contained  in  it,  will  impart  to  them.  Under 
the  ordinary  conditions  of  working,  beater-rolls  should 
run  from  eighteen  to  twenty  months  after  filling,  and 
bed-plates  from  ten  to  twelve  weeks. 

Should  the  plates  be  worked  for  a  longer  period 
than  that,  the  roll  has  to  be  put  so  firmly  down,  in 
order  to  make  fine  stuff,  that  the  driving  power  is 
taxed  to  the  uttermost,  and,  in  addition,  the  stuff,  from 
having  to  be  kept  a  much  longer  time  in  the  engine 
before  it  can  be  made  fine,  is  very  liable  to  become 
too  soft. 

As  a  result  of  the  increased  demand  for  the  cheaper 
grades  of  paper,  consisting  wholly  or  in  large  part 
of  wood  pulp,  the  tendency  in  beater  construction  has 
been  towards  the  production  of  beaters  of  larger 
capacity ;  and  no  doubt,  when  it  is  possible  to  arrange 


HIBBERT  BEATER.  6l 

for  long  runs  on  one  grade  of  paper,  these  large 
engines  possess  several  distinct  advantages. 

The  colouring  of  a  larger  body  of  pulp  at  one  time 
tends  to  regularity  and  the  prevention  of  shades,  while 
the  pulp  is  much  less  apt  to  become  too  greasy,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  it  has  much  further  to  travel  between 
each  contact  with  roll  and  plate.  The  necessity  for 
the  production  of  free  stuff  which  will  allow  of  quick 
driving  and  a  close  even  sheet  has  led  several  paper- 
making  engineers  to  design  beaters  in  which  the  roll 
is  placed  so  as  to  be  quite  clear  of  the  pulp,  the  latter 
being  supplied  in  some  instances  by  means  of  a  screw, 
and  in  others  by  a  circulating  pump.  Perhaps  the 
most  popular  of  these  new  types  is  that  known  as 
the  "  Hibbert "  beater,  which  also  combines  the  beating 
and  refining,  and  has  been  largely  adopted  in  mills 
making  long  runs  on  wood  pulp  papers. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  assumed  that,  because  for 
certain  grades  of  wood  pulp  or  esparto  papers  the 
newer  type  of  beating  engines  offer  advantages,  the 
Hollander  type  has  been  rendered  obsolete.  The  fact  is 
that  the  tendency  to  specialise  is  becoming  much  more 
noticeable,  with  the  result  that  makers,  having  proved 
that  a  certain  type  of  beater  suits  the  special  papers 
to  which  they  are  turning  their  attention,  are  installing 
the  particular  beater  when  opportunity  .offers. 

The  problem  which  confronts  the  paper-maker  when 
called  on  to  decide  on  the  type  of  beater  to  adopt 
must  depend  for  its  solution  on  the  special  require- 


62  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

ments  of  the  paper  he  desires  to  produce,  and  the 
power  at  his  disposal  for  beating  purposes,  together 
with  the  physical  properties  of  the  raw  materials  to  be 
employed.  In  order  to  produce  from,  say,  esparto,  a 
pulp  which  would  be  capable  of  settling  down  quickly 
on  the  machine  wire,  and  making,  under  the  influence 
of  a  medium  shake,  a  close,  mellow  paper — which,  in 
view  of  economical  production,  must  be  turned  out  at  a 
quick  speed — the  roll  and  bed-plate  bars  would  require 
to  be  somewhat  sharp,  in  order  to  shorten  the  fibres 
sufficiently  without  rendering  them  so  greasy  as  to 
retain  the  water  too  long  on  the  wire.  The  circulation 
must  also  be  well  maintained,  and  for  the  preparation 
of  such  papers  the  new  type  of  beater  offers  distinct 
advantages,  as,  with  the  independent  circulation,  it  is 
possible  to  arrest  the  flow  of  the  pulp  when  it  is  fully 
prepared,  and  thus  avoid  getting  it  too  greasy. 

Most  practical  paper-makers  will  be  ready  to  admit, 
however,  that  a  beater  which  is  eminently  fitted  for 
the  production  of  fine,  free  stuff,  will  not  of  necessity 
produce  as  good  results,  even  under  skilful  manipula- 
tion, when  working  on,  say,  chemical  wood  pulp  for 
the  production  of  a  paper  such  as  the  thin  Kraft 
papers,  in  which  the  indispensable  requirements  are 
toughness  and  flexibility,  together  with  the  mellow 
appearance  characteristic  of  well-milled  greasy  stuffs 
from  the  Hollander  type. 

Notwithstanding  the  degree  of  nicety  with  which 
the  roll  can  be  raised  or  lowered,  and  the  means 


LIGHT  AND  HEAVY  BEATER  ROLLS.  63 

thus  at  hand  for  regulating  the  superficial  pressure 
exerted  on  the  ultimate  fibres  as  they  pass  between 
the  bars  of  the  roll  and  the  bed-plate,  the  pulp  produced 
with  sharp  bars  is  invariably  weaker,  and  (though  the 
ultimate  fibres  may  be  a  fair  length)  lacks  the  greasy 
well-milled  feel  which  is  indispensable  for  the  pro- 
duction of  thin,  tough  papers.  This  inferiority  is  all 
the  more  noticeable  should  the  stock  consist  of  strong 
rags  and  wood  pulp,  as  the  already  disintegrated  wood 
fibres  are  too  much  cut  up  by  the  treatment  necessary 
to  open  out  the  fibre  bundles  of  the  rags.  It  is  well 
known  that  a  light  beater  roll  will  draw  out  the  fibres 
much  better  than  a  heavy  one,  but  that,  in  order  to 
produce  equal  results  in  the  reduction  of  the  fibres, 
the  light  roll  will  take  longer  time.  The  whole 
question  really  lies  in  the  superficial  pressure  exerted 
by  the  roll,  and  with  sharp  bars  the  pressure  is 
increased  in  proportion  as  the  area  of  the  bearing 
and  cutting  surface  is  reduced. 

For  the  production  of  the  higher  grades  of  writing 
and  printing  papers,  in  which  the  appearance  is  so 
important  a  factor,  the  best  results  will  be  obtained 
with  bars  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  on  the  face. 
This  will  be  found  to  hold  good  whether  the  half-stuff 
consists  of  rags,  esparto,  or  wood ;  and  as  the  demand 
for  cheap,  smart-looking  papers  seems  to  become  more 
pronounced,  such  conditions  are  likely  to  govern  the 
type  of  whatever  innovations  may  appear  in  beater 
construction.  It  will  be  generally  admitted  that  for 


64  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

good  all-round  work  the  medium  size  of  beating  engine, 
carrying  from  500  to  700  Ibs.  of  stuff,  is  undoubtedly 
the  best,  although,  as  mentioned  above,  beaters  of 
larger  capacity  possess  certain  advantages  for  long 
runs  on  one  quality  of  pulp. 

While  no  hard-and-fast  rule  as  to  the  conditions 
of  the  bars  can  with  any  safety  be  promulgated,  it 
will  be  of  material  assistance  to  paper-makers  who 
wish  to  determine  the  most  suitable  conditions  of  roll 
and  bed-plate  bars,  for  the  treatment  of  any  particular 
half-stuff,  if  they  will  set  to  work  and  find  out  the 
exact  relationship  which  exists  between  the  state  of 
the  bars  and  the  amount  of  superficial  pressure  exerted 
between  them  when  in  contact  with  the  stuff.  To  state 
the  matter  crudely,  the  smaller  the  area  of  the  points  of 
contact,  the  greater  the  pressure  exerted  on  the  fibres, 
and  vice  versa. 

With  a  view  to  testing  the  difference  produced  on 
wood  pulp  papers  by  beating  the  fibres  under  a  low 
superficial  pressure,  the  writer  has  substituted  a  solid 
block  of  granite  for  the  usual  bed-plate  of  steel  bars, 
with  excellent  results.  The  experiment  was  first  tried 
with  a  beater  of  the  usual  Hollander  type,  carrying 
from  450  to  500  Ibs.  of  pulp,  having  a  roll  42  inches 
on  the  face,  with  72  bars  drawn  out  to  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  on  the  face.  The  plate  contained  26  bars,  also 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  wide  on  the  face.  The  granite 
block  gave  a  bearing  surface  of  42  inches  by  8  inches, 
and  was  hollowed  out  to  suit  the  sweep  of  the  roll, 


GRANITE  AS  BED- PL  ATE.  65 

with  the  result  that  the  ultimate  fibres  were  drawn 
out,  as  they  were  swept  across  the  granite  face  by 
the  action  of  the  roll  bars. 

By  substituting  the  solid  block  the  superficial 
pressure  is  thus  reduced  to  about  one-third,  while  the 
number  of  cuts  per  revolution  of  the  roll  is  now  72, 
as  against  1872  with  the  steel  plate. 

The  advantage  gained  in  beating  half-stuff,  which 
already  contains  a  sufficient  number  of  short  fibres 
to  impart  the  desired  firmness  to  the  finished  sheet, 
without  the  necessity  of  further  shortening  them,  is 
very  considerable.  After  a  trial  extending  over  a 
period  of  eighteen  months,  the  net  results  of  preparing 
stock,  which  is  wanted  long  and  tough,  under  the 
lower  superficial  pressure,  and  with  the  cutting  power 
so  much  reduced,  showed  an  increase  of  30  per  cent, 
in  the  strength  and  firmness  of  the  papers  produced, 
together  with  a  very  considerable  increase  in  the  turn 
out,  due  to  being  able  to  get  the  stuff  out  in  a  shorter 
time.  Originally  intended  to  draw  out  sulphite  wood 
without  cutting  it,  the  method  was  tried  experimentally 
on  strong  rag  stuff,  and  with  such  good  results  that 
it  was  adopted  for  beating  fibrous  materials,  such  as 
strong  cotton  and  linen  rags,  hemp,  and  jute.  The 
increase  of  strength  is  most  noticeable  when  the  furnish 
consists  of  a  mixture  of  fibres  which  present  a  variety 
of  characteristics  as  to  length  and  resistance  to  the 
knives,  as  the  weaker  fibres  are  not  rendered  too 
short  before  the  stronger  ones  are  sufficiently  drawn 

5 


66  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

out.  This  increase  in  the  strength  of  the  finished  sheet 
was  so  marked  in  one  instance,  that  when  the  machine 
started  up  with  the  stuff  prepared  under  the  new  con- 
ditions the  paper  was  considered  so  much  above  the 
usual  quality  that  an  additional  quantity  of  loading 
was  added  to  bring  it  to  the  desired  standard. 

Not  the  least  advantage  in  working  the  solid  block  is 
that  the  stuff  from  strong  materials  can  be  cleared  much 
better;  and  though  the  individual  fibres  retain  their 
original  length  in  a  much  larger  degree,  this  freedom 
from  knots  has  the  result  of  making  them  pass 
through  the  screens  much  more  readily  than  fibres 
which  have  been  cut  short  without  being  sufficiently 
drawn  out  and  set  free  from  the  fibre  bundles,  as  is 
often  the  case  when  long  stuff  is  prepared  with  even 
moderately  sharp  tackle.  When  the  block  is  made  to 
fit  the  "den"  exactly,  it  becomes  a  very  simple  matter 
to  substitute  a  block  for  a  plate,  or  vice  versa,  should 
the  particular  requirements  of  the  paper  it  is  desirable 
to  produce  render  it  advisable.  Should  the  blocks 
become  worn  smooth,  as  they  do  in  time,  it  is  well 
to  have  them  picked  on  the  surface,  as  in  this  way 
they  retain  the  stuff  better,  and  the  beating  can  be 
accomplished  in  shorter  time. 

When  tried  against  steel  plates,  the  writer  found 
that  with  rough  blocks  a  better  quality  of  paper  could 
be  produced  in  six  hours  than  could  be  obtained  in 
eight  hours  from  steel  plates. 


CHAPTER    VII. 
LOADING.— STARCH.— COLOURING  MATTER. 

Loading. — It  is  not  an  uncommon  idea  with  a  great 
many  people  that,  in  adding  loading  materials  to  the 
paper  in  the  process  of  manufacture,  the  paper-maker 
is  actuated  by  a  motive  akin  to  that  which  prompts 
the  dairyman  to  water  the  milk. 

Though  the  percentage  of  loading  in  some  papers 
would  seem  to  justify  such  an  opinion,  yet,  as  a  rule, 
the  loading  is  added  with  a  distinct  view  to  making  the 
paper  more  suitable  for  the  particular  purpose  to  which 
it  is  applied.  In  the  case  of  printing  papers  especially, 
the  addition  of  15  or  16  per  cent,  of  loading,  by 
making  them  more  absorbent,  enables  them  to  print 
much  better,  and  lessens  in  a  considerable  degree  the 
friction  when  in  contact  with  the  types. 

The  first  thing  that  the  paper-maker  must  take  into 
consideration  when  selecting  a  loading  material  is  that 
its  chemical  nature  is  such  that  when  in  contact  with 
the  free  acids  or  chlorine  compounds,  liable  to  be 

present  in  the  pulp,  no  chemical  or  physical  change 

67 


68  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

will  result.  When  that  has  been  satisfactorily  settled, 
the  next  requirement  to  be  looked  to  is  freedom  from 
sand  or  coarse  particles,  which  would  tend  to  impair 
the  value  of  the  paper;  and  lastly,  the  colour  should 
be  bright  enough  to  blend  with  the  shades  of  paper 
for  which  it  is  intended. 

Kaolin,  or  china  clay,  as  it  is  usually  termed,  is 
the  loading  usually  employed  in  the  making  of  news, 
printings,  and  the  lower  qualities  of  writings.  The 
clay  is  made  into  a  thin  cream  with  water,  generally 
in  a  chest  fitted  with  a  revolving  agitator,  so  that 
when  furnished  to  the  engine  it  will  always  be  of 
the  same  consistency.  Some  paper-makers  mix  it 
with  resin  size,  the  idea  being  that  in  this  way  it  is 
more  firmly  held  by  the  fibres,  and  less  liable  to 
pass  through  the  meshes  of  the  machine  wire. 

Before  running  into  the  beater  it  should  be  carefully 
strained,  so  that  any  sand  or  unground  particles  may 
be  kept  back.  The  sieves  used  for  this  purpose  should 
be  very  fine,  as  even  the  best  grades  of  clay  contain 
a  considerable  proportion  of  extraneous  matter. 

China  clay,  in  addition  to  enabling  the  paper  loaded 
with  it  to  take  up  the  printing  ink  more  rapidly,  helps 
materially  in  bringing  up  the  surface  when  calendering, 
though  from  its  power  of  absorbing  moisture  the  high 
finish  thus  obtained  is  liable  to  go  back  if  exposed 
in  a  damp  atmosphere.  Should  an  excessive  amount 
be  added,  or  if  it  has  been  imperfectly  strained, 
the  pressure  of  the  calender  rolls  will  have  the  effect 


CHINA    CLAY.— PEARL    HARDENING.  69 

of  squeezing  the  coarser  particles  out  and  leaving 
the  sheet  pierced  with  innumerable  very  minute 
holes. 

The  sizing  and  feel  of  clay-loaded  papers  are  never 
so  good  as  with  papers  loaded  with  such  materials  as 
pearl  hardening  or  barium  sulphate,  nor  do  they  bulk 
so  well.  Heavy  chromo  and  plate  papers  often  contain 
as  much  as  35  to  40  per  cent,  of  clay;  and  though 
such  a  large  amount  is  very  apt  to  cause  "  dusting  " 
in  cutting  and  printing,  the  impression  obtained  is 
much  more  clear,  and  the  colours  are  absorbed  more 
rapidly,  than  would  be  possible  with  a  smaller  pro- 
portion of  loading. 

For  the  better  qualities  of  writing  papers,  the 
materials  used  are  calcium  sulphate,  sulphate  of  barium, 
barium  chloride,  and  agalite. 

Calcium  sulphate — or  pearl  hardening,  as  it  is  usually 
named — is  generally  clean  enough  to  be  added  to  the 
engine  without  straining,  and  is  added  in  the  dry  state, 
and  owing  to  its  firmer  nature  the  sizing  is  much  less 
impaired  than  with  clay.  In  addition  to  its  hardening 
properties,  it  imparts  a  purity  of  shade  to  the  paper, 
which  makes  it  very  valuable  as  a  loading  for  the 
finer  qualities  of  writings,  in  which  look  is  of  the  first 
importance.  This  brilliancy  is  also  possessed  by 
barium  sulphate,  but  as  it  is  not  usually  so  free  from 
dirt  it  is  not  so  suitable  for  high-class  papers. 

Barium  sulphate,  owing  to  its  high  specific  gravity, 
is  not  carried  so  well  by  the  stuff,  and  when  diluted 


7o 


PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 


to  the  consistency  usual  in  the  sandtrap,  a  large  pro- 
portion settles  out  and  adheres  to  the  bottom  of  the 
spouts.  This,  together  with  the  amount  which  passes 
through  the  wire  and  is  deposited  on  the  bottom  of 
the  save-all,  reduces  the  percentage  carried  to  about 
30  per  cent,  of  the  amount  actually  added.  It  should 
be  mixed  with  water  and  strained  before  being  put  into 
the  engine,  otherwise  a  large  amount  of  dirt  will  be 
carried  into  the  paper. 

A  paper,  weighing  equal  to  about  4olbs.  demy,  when 
loaded  with  clay  to  show  19  to  20  per  cent,  on 
burning,  will  carry  as  much  as  85  per  cent,  of  that 
added  to  the  beater.  Should  such  a  paper  consist  of 
a  large  proportion  of  edgerunner  broke,  the  amount 
carried  will  in  some  cases  be  as  much  as  90  to  95 
per  cent. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  when 
edgerunner  broke  is  used,  the  amount  added  to  the 
engine  will  contain  as  much  as  15  to  18  per 
cent,  of  clay  firmly  fixed  on  the  fibres  by  the 
previous  sizing  and  drying,  so  that  the  percentage 
of  that  added  as  clay,  which  is  carried  in  the  paper, 
is  not  so  high  as  it  at  first  appears.  Heavy  chromo 
papers  burning  35  to  40  per  cent,  of  clay  will  not 
carry  more  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
added. 

This  is  owing  to  the  beating  of  the  stuff,  which  is 
cut  up  very  quickly  and  thus  rendered  very  free, 
coupled  with  the  fact  that  the  machine  wire  in 


AGALITE.—  STARCH.  71 

travelling  so  slowly  gives  more  time  for  the  loading 
to  be  shaken  through  the  meshes.  The  percentage 
of  barium  sulphate  carried  will  seldom  exceed  35 
per  cent.,  while  pearl  hardening  will  usually  turn 
out  50  per  cent.  It  is  claimed  that  by  using 
chloride  of  barium,  and  adding  a  slight  excess  of 
alum  or  alumina,  sulphate  of  barium  will  be  pre- 
cipitated on  the  fibres  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable 
them  to  retain  it  much  better,  and  so  increase  the 
turn  out. 

Agalite  is  the  only  loading  material  apart  from 
ground  wood  which  can  claim  to  be  more  than  a 
loading,  on  account  of  its  fibrous  nature. 

Agalite  is  prepared  from  asbestos,  and  retains  the 
fibrous  nature  of  that  substance.  Owing  to  this 
the  loss  in  passing  over  the  wire  is  much  less,  and 
indeed  it  is  claimed  that  in  ordinary  circumstances 
as  much  as  99  per  cent,  is  actually  carried.  By 
using  agalite  the  surface  is  much  improved,  owing 
to  its  soapy  nature,  and  the  sizing  is  not  impaired 
as  with  china  clay. 

It  has  the  drawback,  however,  of  making  the  paper 
loaded  with  it  very  greasy,  owing  to  the  size  having 
become  fixed  in  the  pores,  and  retaining  the  water 
very  obstinately. 

Starch, — This  is  applied  to  papers  in  the  process 
of  manufacture  for  the  same  reason  as  it  is  used  by 
the  housewife  in  preparing  collars  and  cuffs  for  ironing 


72  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

and  glazing— namely,  for  hardening,  and  enabling 
them  to  resist  the  effects  of  moisture,  as  well  as 
for  imparting  a  high  polish  in  the  subsequent  glazing 
process. 

In  some  mills  it  is  the  custom  to  boil  the  starch 
with  the  resinate  of  soda  solution  before  adding  it 
to  the  pulp,  as  in  this  way  a  larger  percentage  is 
retained  by  the  paper.  When  applied  in  this  way, 
the  paper,  though  taking  on  quite  as  good  a  surface, 
has  not  the  firmness  and  rattle  obtained  when  the 
starch  is  added  to  the  pulp  in  the  dry  state, 
or  merely  dissolved  in  cold  water,  that  the  impurities 
liable  to  be  contained  in  it  may  be  kept  back  by 
putting  it  through  a  fine  wire-cloth  sieve. 

Colouring  Matter, — Notwithstanding  the  purity  of 
colour  that  can  be  obtained  by  a  judicious  use  of  the 
bleaching  solution,  very  few  even  of  the  finest  qualities 
of  white  papers  are  made  a  "  self-colour."  The  colours 
used  for  brightening  or  enriching  the  majority  of 
cream  coloured  papers  are  ultramarine  and  carnation. 
In  order  to  ensure  uniformity  of  shade,  a  certain 
standard  should  be  fixed  for  each  of  these  colours; 
and  thus,  by  comparison,  the  colouring  power  of 
new  brands  which  may  from  time  to  time  be  brought 
in  can  be  at  once  determined.  The  standard  sample 
may  either  be  prepared  by  mixing  a  known  quantity 
of  the  colour,  decided  upon  as  the  standard,  with  a 
measured  quantity  of  fine  starch  or  pearl  hardening ; 


ULTRAMARINE.  73 

or  by  dissolving  a  small  portion  in  hot  water,  and 
saturating  narrow  strips  of  white  blotting  paper 
with  the  resulting  colour. 

By  treating  equal  weights  of  the  new  samples  in 
exactly  the  same  manner,  taking  care  always  to 
preserve  the  same  proportions  when  dissolving,  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  relative  colouring  power  can  at 
once  be  obtained,  and  a  short  calculation,  based  on 
the  amount  of  pulp  coloured  by  the  standard,  will 
enable  the  papermaker  to  determine  whether  the 
colouring  power  of  the  new  sample  is  in  proportion 
to  its  cost. 

The  behaviour  of  ultramarine — or,  to  use  the  best- 
known  name,  blue — with  the  alum  solution  used  in 
the  mill,  should  also  be  ascertained,  by  allowing  a  drop 
to  remain  in  contact  with  a  diluted  solution  of  alum 
or  sulphate  of  alumina  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
to  show  whether  the  colour  would  be  affected  during 
the  contact  necessary  in  the  beaters,  machine  chests, 
and  sizing  tub. 

Blue  should  always  be  dissolved  in  hot  water  and 
carefully  strained  before  adding  to  the  pulp,  so  that 
no  insoluble  particles  may  be  fixed  on  the  fibres, 
and  appear  as  blue  specks  on  the  under  side  of  the 
sheet.  To  ensure  that  the  colour  will  be  uniformly 
distributed,  when  a  considerable  quantity  is  being 
used,  half  of  the  amount  necessary  should  be  put  in 
just  after  furnishing,  so  that  it  may  be  thoroughly 
mixed,  while  the  remaining  half  should  be  added  as 


74  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING, 

soon  as  it  has  been  ascertained  whether  any  altera- 
tion is  to  be  made. 

Pulp  which  has  been  left  standing  in  the  machine 
chests  for  any  length  of  time  will  generally  be  found  to 
have  gone  back  in  the  colour  when  blue  is  the  colour- 
ing matter  used.  This  fading  will  be  greater  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  acid  contained  in  the  pulp,  the 
exposure  to  light  to  which  it  has  been  subjected,  and 
the  amount  of  iron  impurities  contained  in  the  water  or 
communicated  from  the  rolls  and  sides  of  the  beaters. 

In  some  mills  the  amount  added,  in  order  to  counter- 
act this  fading,  when  the  pulp  has  been  standing  from 
Saturday  night  until  Monday  morning,  is  equal  to  a 
third  of  the  colour  used  to  give  the  desired  shade, 
while  in  others  a  sixth  is  found  to  be  sufficient.  When 
making  papers  coloured  with  smalts,  which  is  unacted 
on  by  acids,  the  fading  is  very  slight,  about  a  half- 
pound  for  every  twelve  pounds  left  in  the  chest  being 
quite  sufficient.  With  inferior  grades  of  smalts  the 
liability  to  fading  is,  however,  much  greater. 

When  making  delicate  colours  the  alum  should  be 
kept  out  until  just  before  drawing  the  valve,  so  that 
the  contact  with  the  colour  may  be  as  limited  as 
possible.  A  very  suitable  way  in  which  to  use  coch- 
ineal is  to  dissolve  it  in  a  dilute  solution  of  ammonia, 
to  which  a  little  cream  of  tartar  has  been  added.  The 
cochineal  paste  is  sometimes  dissolved,  with  the  cream 
of  tartar,  in  the  water  before  the  ammonia  is  added. 
Used  in  this  way  there  is  no  danger  that  the  colour 


ANILINE  COLOURS.  75 

will  spot  the  underside  of  the  paper,  as  is  often  the 
case  when  the  dry  carnation  powder  is  used. 

Not  unfrequently  when  making  toned  papers  the 
iron  used  to  give  the  shade  makes  the  resulting  colour 
too  bright.  In  such  a  case  a  glass  or  two  of  bark 
liquor  added  to  the  engine  or  the  chests  will  deaden 
the  colour  to  the  desired  shade. 

When  making  greens,  which  colours  are  usually  pro- 
duced by  combination  of  bichromate  of  potash  and 
nitrate  of  lead  with  Paris  blue — or  paste  blue,  as  it  is 
often  termed — the  two  first  mentioned  should  always 
be  put  into  the  engine  and  allowed  to  become  mixed 
with  the  pulp  before  the  blue  is  added,  and  alum 
should  be  kept  out  until  just  before  drawing  the  valve. 
Before  adding  the  nitrate  of  lead  to  the  engine  care 
should  be  taken  that  there  are  no  traces  of  chlorine 
compounds  in  the  pulp,  as  the  presence  of  such  would 
cause  the  yellow  colour  produced  on  the  addition  of 
the  bichromate  to  take  on  a  dull  orange  tint. 

Aniline  Colours. — Though  the  advantages  attending 
the  use  of  the  coal-tar  derivatives  or  aniline  dyes — to 
give  them  their  most  familiar  name — have  been  known 
for  many  years,  it  is  only  within  a  comparatively  recent 
period  that  these  dyes  have  been  used  for  colouring 
any  but  the  cheaper  grades  of  paper.  Thanks,  how- 
ever, to  the  painstaking  and  elaborate  investigations 
of  the  German  chemists,  applied  under  "  up-to-date  " 
commercial  conditions,  these  coal-tar  colours  have  been 


76  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

produced  in  an  almost  endless  series  of  shades,  many 
of  which  can  compare  favourably  with  the  older  forms 
of  colouring  matter  as  to  stability,  while  for  depth 
and  variety  of  shade  they  far  surpass  them. 

Notwithstanding  that  from  a  chemical  point  of  view 
the  various  colours  are  divided  into  distinctive  groups, 
named  respectively  acid  and  basic,  their  action  is  not 
complicated  to  any  extent.  As  a  rule,  when  using 
the  comparatively  small  quantities  necessary  for  tinting 
purposes,  it  will  be  found  that  both  the  so-called  acid 
and  basic  colours  will  give  reliable  and  regular  results 
when  fixed  with  any  of  the  alum  compounds  in  general 
use  ;  and  this  fact  alone  is  sufficient  to  ensure  the 
adoption  of  these  aniline  dyes  in  most  mills.  It  is 
when  using  the  larger  quantities  necessary  to  produce 
the  deeper  shades  that  regard  has  to  be  given  to  the 
reaction  peculiar  to  each  derivative,  inasmuch  as  a 
considerable  advantage,  in  point  both  of  economy  and 
of  regularity,  is  gained  by  taking  advantage  of  these 
distinctive  properties.  Thus,  when  making  a  deep 
scarlet,  better  results  are  ensured  if  the  pulp  be  first 
dyed  with  a  basic  colour  such  as  paper  scarlet,  and 
subsequently,  after  allowing  time  for  complete  mixing, 
an  acid  colour  such  as  cotton  scarlet  be  added.  By 
proceeding  thus,  the  acid  colour  forms  a  chemical 
combination  with  the  basic  dye,  with  the  result  that 
a  precipitate  is  formed  on  the  fibres,  ensuring  a  fast 
colour  and  more  complete  exhaustion,  with  the  atten- 
dant advantages  of  a  much  clearer  backwater. 


ACID  AND  BASIC  COLOURS.  77 

Of  the  acid  group,  cotton  scarlet  is  perhaps  the 
best  known,  and  being  largely  used  for  the  production 
of  deep  shades,  the  question  of  complete  exhaustion 
and  a  clear  backwater  is  of  the  first  importance,  in 
view  of  the  avoidance  of  pollution  difficulties.  Not- 
withstanding that  a  great  many  experiments  have 
been  made  in  order  to  determine  the  conditions  most 
suitable  for  ensuring  a  clear  backwater  when  using 
large  quantities  of  cotton  scarlet,  the  fact  remains  that 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  do  so,  even  when  the 
utmost  precautions  are  taken  to  ensure  the  formation 
of  a  like  precipitate  on  the  fibres.  It  will  be  found, 
however,  that  by  observing  certain  precautions  a  great 
degree  of  exhaustion  may  be  obtained ;  and  one  of 
the  most  important  points  is  to  allow  sufficient  time 
for  complete  mixing  of  the  pulp  and  the  dye  before 
adding  the  sizing  solution,  care  being  taken  to  add 
about  twice  the  usual  amount  of  sizing. 

Fresh  dyes,  it  will  be  found,  are  much  more  liable  to 
give  rise  to  frothing  than  if  the  lids  be  removed  for 
some  time.  When  using  paraffine  for  froth  prevention, 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  an  excess,  as  otherwise 
small  specks  of  tarry  matter  will  appear  in  the  sheet. 

As  a  rule  the  acid  colours  will  be  found  to  have 
more  resistance  to  light  than  the  basic  colours. 

Amamine  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  basic 
group,  and  gives  excellent  results,  either  used  alone 
or  in  conjunction  with  other  colours.  When  using 
colours  belonging  to  the  eosine  group,  great  care  must 


7  8  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

be  taken  to  maintain  the  temperature  of  the  drying 
cylinders  as  uniform  as  possible,  as  otherwise  a  con- 
siderable variation  of  shade  will  result.  This  variation 
is  most  noticeable  when  making  delicate  shades  on 
the  single-cylinder  machine. 

Dyeing  to  Shade, — As  a  general  rule,  the  dyeing 
of  paper  pulp  is  conducted  in  a  somewhat  haphazard 
manner,  with  the  result  that,  while  in  the  greater 
number  of  instances  the  methods  adopted  by  the 
papermaker  work  out  fairly  well,  it  not  infrequently 
happens  that  much  time  is  lost  and  paper  spoiled 
through  the  colours  not  being  right  in  shade ;  especially 
should  the  shade  be  a  new  one  for  that  particular 
mill.  Given  even  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the 
nature  and  properties  of  the  dyes  to  be  used,  there 
is  no  reason  why  any  great  degree  of  uncertainty 
should  exist  as  to  how  the  colour  will  work  on  the 
machine,  provided  that  the  dyeing  be  carried  out 
systematically  and  intelligently.  There  are  two  methods 
by  which  the  " striking"  of  colours  may  be  carried  out 
much  more  expeditiously,  and  with  (what  is  even  of 
greater  importance)  more  certainty,  than  is  possible 
under  the  rule  of  thumb  generally  adopted. 

To  carry  out  the  first  of  these  methods,  the  apparatus 
necessary  consists  of  a  chemical  balance,  a  graduated 
burette,  three  or  four  beakers,  and  about  half  a  dozen 
stoppered  bottles.  For  the  second  method  the  balance 
is  all  that  is  absolutely  indispensable,  though  the  use 


DYEING  TO  SHADE.  79 

of  a  small  mortar  and  pestle  facilitates  matters  a  great 
deal.  In  carrying  out  the  first  method,  which  is  re- 
stricted to  dyes  as  distinguished  from  pigments,  a 
weighed  quantity  of  each  dye  of  which  it  is  intended 
to  make  up  a  standard  solution  is  dissolved  in  a  known 
volume  of  water  and  labelled  in  the  following  manner, 
according  to  the  proportions  of  water  and  dye  used : 
thus,  "  100  C.C.  =  I  gramme  "  would  be  the  label  should 
10  grammes  be  dissolved  in  one  litre  of  water.  In 
working  out  this  method  a  certain  number  of  cubic 
centimetres  are  added  to  a  known  weight  of  pulp — 
say  sufficient  to  weigh  10  grammes  when  made  into 
paper — and  when  the  requisite  dyes  are  added  the 
pulp  is  diluted,  and  tried  either  in  the  hand  mould 
or  along  the  machine  wire,  when  the  percentage  of 
each  dye  can  be  at  once  ascertained.  In  working 
out  the  second  method,  the  dyes  or  pigments  are 
weighed  off  and  added  to  the  experimental  quantity 
of  pulp  in  the  dry  state,  a  convenient  scale  being 
*OI  grammes  of  dye  to  10  grammes  of  paper,  being 
equal  to  one  pound  of  dye  to  1,000  pounds  of  paper. 
It  is  obvious  that  these  experimental  trials  can  be 
carried  out  before  the  time  for  furnishing  the  beaters, 
and  so  there  is  no  unnecessary  delay,  in  addition  to 
securing  a  much  more  satisfactory  start  than  is  possible 
when  the  beaters  have  to  be  dyed  up  experimentally. 

Of  the  two  methods  the  writer  always  uses  the  latter, 
which  lends  itself  either  to  the  use  of  dyes  or  pigments, 
and  when  carefully  worked  is  most  reliable. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
RESIN   SIZE   AND   SIZING. 

OF  all  the  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper, 
there  is  none  about  which  there  exists  such  diversity 
of  opinion,  both  as  to  its  preparation  and  subsequent 
action,  as  that  of  resin  size. 

Dr.  Wiirster  holds  that  the  degree  of  sizing  is  pro- 
portional to  the  amount  of  free  resin  deposited  on  the 
fibres.  Other  experts,  however,  claim  that  the  active 
sizing  agent  consists  of  the  resinate  of  alumina,  formed 
when  the  resin  soap  is  decomposed  by  the  alum ;  while 
it  is  asserted  by  some  that  it  is  a  mixture  of  both  which 
constitutes  the  size  coating. 

In  support  of  the  free  resin  theory,  it  is  claimed  that 
paper  can  be  sized  without  the  use  of  alum  or  alumina 
by  making  use  of  sulphuric  acid  to  decompose  the 
resinate  of  soda  and  liberate  the  resin.  Though  the 
majority  of  paper-makers  hold  the  opinion  that  the 
resinate  of  alumina  alone  sizes  the  paper,  nearly  every 
mill  has  a  different  recipe  for  the  preparation  of  the 
size. 


RESIN  SIZE.  8 1 

While  the  exact  chemical  composition  of  resin  is 
still  a  matter  of  some  obscurity,  chemists  and  paper- 
making  experts  are  generally  agreed  that  two  parts 
of  crystal  soda  are  required  to  unite  with  four  parts 
of  resin  ;  while,  if  good  soda  ash  be  used  in  place  of 
the  crystal  form,  one  part  will  form  a  neutral  resinate 
with  four  of  the  resin. 

The  following  recipe  will  give  a  reliable  size  of  a 
light  brown  colour,  which  will  be  as  near  as  possible 
a  neutral  resinate  of  soda : — Dissolve  ninety-eight 
pounds  of  good  soda  ash  in  thirty-six  gallons  of 
boiling  water,  and  then  add  four  hundred  and  twenty 
pounds  of  powdered  resin. 

The  best  form  of  boiler  is  a  jacketed  one,  as  by 
using  it  the  increase  of  water,  due  to  the  condensation 
of  the  steam  used  to  boil  with,  is  avoided.  The  resin 
should  be  roughly  powdered  by  the  hand,  as  it  is 
asserted  that  the  finely  divided  resin,  prepared  by 
using  a  grinding  mill,  is  very  liable  to  form  clots  on 
being  put  into  the  hot  soda  solution.  So  long  as  any 
of  the  resin  is  undissolved,  the  carbonic  acid,  evolved 
as  it  enters  into  combination  with  the  soda,  will  cause 
the  solution  to  froth  up,  and,  if  not  carefully  watched, 
so  as  to  check  the  steam  in  time,  it  will  come  right 
over  the  top  of  the  boiler. 

To  avoid  this  as  much  as  possible,  the  temperature 
should  be  kept  no  higher  than  is  necessary  to  dissolve 
the  resin  in  a  reasonable  time.  In  addition  to  pre- 
venting the  frothing,  it  is  said  that  the  carbonic  acid, 

6 


82  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

when  not  violently  expelled,  has  the  power  of  forming 
a  bicarbonate  with  the  uncombined  soda,  which  tends 
to  improve  the  sizing  properties  of  the  soap. 

When  all  the  resin  has  united  with  the  soda,  the 
steam  should  be  shut  off,  as  further  heating  impairs 
the  strength  of  the  size.  To  test  whether  the  resin 
has  all  gone  into  combination,  a  little  of  the  size  should 
be  taken  out  and  poured  into  a  pailful  of  tepid  water. 
If  it  is  right  it  should  dissolve  at  once,  and  on  putting 
in  the  hand  there  will  be  no  deposit  of  resin.  If, 
however,  the  resin  has  not  all  gone  into  solution,  the 
hairs  on  the  back  of  the  hand  will  be  rendered  quite 
sticky  by  the  adhesion  of  the  uncombined  particles. 

If  a  further  heating  does  not  serve  to  combine  the 
resin,  it  may  be  inferred  that,  probably  owing  to  a 
variation  in  the  strength  of  the  soda,  the  amount  used 
is  insufficient,  and  more  will  require  to  be  added  until 
the  test  shows  that  there  is  no  more  uncombined  resin 
present.  The  soap  should  be  run  through  a  sieve 
before  being  put  into  the  store  tanks,  that  any  in- 
soluble impurities  may  be  removed. 

Size  prepared  in  this  way  will  not  yield  much  lye 
when  kept  for  a  length  of  time,  for  this  reason,  that  it 
does  not  contain  much  soda  in  excess.  The  lye  which 
separates  out  contains  the  colouring  matter  of  the 
resin  and  any  soluble  impurities  that  may  have  been 
introduced  while  boiling.  This  lye  should  be  carefully 
skimmed  off,  and  while  most  paper-makers  make  no 
further  use  of  it,  it  is  recommended  by  others  to  be 


WHITE  SIZE.  83 

used  in  dissolving  the  next  boiling,  as  by  using  it  less 
soda  is  required.  They  further  assert  that  the  acid 
which  constitutes  the  colouring  matter  tends  to  im- 
prove the  value  of  the  size. 

A  size  prepared  with  the  proportions  given  above 
should  yield  about  ninety-six  gallons  of  undiluted  soap, 
each  gallon  containing  nearly  five-and-a-half  pounds 
of  resinate  of  soda.  To  prepare  the  solution  for  the 
beating  engine,  eight  gallons  of  this  strong  size  should 
be  diluted  with  eighty  gallons  of  water,  which  will  be 
equal  to  half-a-pound  of  resinate  of  soda  per  gallon 
as  furnished  to  the  engine.  After  having  been  brought 
to  boiling  point,  the  size  thus  diluted  should  be  strained 
through  flannel,  laid  over  a  fine  sieve,  before  being 
run  to  the  beater  store  tank. 

By  using  soda-ash  and  resin,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  part  of  soda  to  eight  parts  of  resin,  a  white  size 
containing  a  considerable  amount  of  free  resin  will  be 
produced.  A  suitable  way  of  making  this  white  size 
is  to  boil  forty  pounds  of  soda-ash  with  two  hundred 
and  seventy  pounds  of  resin  in  about  sixty  gallons  of 
water,  and  when  all  the  resin  has  been  dissolved  to 
add  fifty  pounds  of  finely  powdered  resin.  When  such 
a  size  is  diluted  for  the  engine,  it  should  be  of  a  bright 
white  colour,  owing  to  the  amount  of  finely  divided 
free  resin  which  it  contains. 

When  in  contact  with  the  pulp,  this  resin  becomes 
attached  to  the  fibres  in  a  purely  mechanical  way,  and 
this,  together  with  the  tendency  of  unprecipitated  resin 


84  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

to  form  resin  spots  in  the  paper,  would  lead  one  to 
conclude  that,  whatever  the  advocates  of  free  resin 
sizing  may  think  of  it,  the  maker  of  fine  grades  will 
best  forward  his  own  interests  by  seeking  to  perfect 
the  preparation  of  a  neutral  resinate  of  soda.  Apart 
altogether  from  the  composition  of  the  sizing  solution 
used,  whether  the  paper  be  well  sized  or  the  reverse 
depends,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the  mode  of  treatment 
in  the  beater. 

When  the  engines  are  heavily  loaded  with  as  much 
stuff  as  possible,  the  ultimate  fibres  do  not  come  under 
the  cutting  action  of  the  knives,  owing  to  the  body  of 
stuff  between  the  roll  and  the  plate,  and  thus,  though 
well  hammered  out,  the  original  form  and  elasticity 
of  the  fibres  are  preserved.  Stuff  prepared  in  such 
a  manner  will  size  well  for  two  reasons,  which  will 
be  readily  understood. 

When  such  stuff  is  carried  down  the'  machine  wire 
it  retains  its  water  very  obstinately,  and  thus  the  size 
coating  is  well  felted  among  the  fibres  before  the  water 
is  drawn  out  by  the  pumps.  The  loss  of  size  with 
the  backwater  is  therefore  very  small.  The  strength 
and  flexibility  of  the  fibres  enable  them  to  felt  closely 
when  coated  with  the  resinate  of  alumina,  and  thus 
a  strong,  well-sized  paper  is  produced,  with  the  usual 
amount  of  alum  and  size. 

With  light  engines  the  body  of  stuff  between  the 
roll  and  the  plate  is  much  thinner,  and  thus  the 
cutting  action  is  more  drastic.  The  result  is  that, 


SIZING.— CRYSTAL  ALUM.  85 

in  addition  to  being  reduced  in  length,  the  fibres  are 
burst  open,  and  thus  lose  much  of  their  felting  power, 
at  the  same  time  being  rendered  very  free.  Free 
stuff  parts  with  the  water  very  easily,  and  thus  much 
of  the  sizing  is  lost  on  the  machine,  while  the 
weakness,  consequent  on  the  treatment  of  the  fibres 
in  the  engine,  is  also  a  great  drawback  to  making  a 
firm,  strong-sized  sheet. 

To  get  the  best  results  in  sizing  stuff  prepared  in 
light  engines,  the  roll  must  be  very  carefully  put 
down,  or  the  very  life  will  be  knocked  out  of  the 
fibres,  and  the  stuff  will  froth  and  "bell"  on  the 
wire,  in  addition  to  being  poorly  sized. 

Until  within  the  last  few  years  potash  alum  was 
almost  exclusively  used  in  the  sizing  of  superior 
papers,  owing  to  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  sulphate 
of  alumina  from  which  free  acid  and  iron  impurities 
had  been  completely  separated. 

Crystal  alum  consists  of  a  double  sulphate  of 
alumina  and  potassium,  united  together  with  24  parts 
of  water,  as  the  following  formula  will  show : — 

A12(S04)3K2S04  +  24H20. 

It  contains  only  about  10*5  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of 
alumina,  and  is  thus  much  more  expensive  than  the 
sulphates  of  alumina. 

Sulphate  of  alumina  is  not  a  chemical  compound 
of  a  definite  composition,  as  the  alumina  varies 
between  2  and  3  per  cent.,  though  that  purchased 


86  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

from  reliable  makers  generally  contains  15  or  16 
per  cent. 

Owing  to  the  improved  methods  of  manufacture  now 
adopted,  the  aluminium  sulphates  can  be  prepared  in 
such  a  way  as  only  to  contain  the  slightest  trace  of  free 
acid  and  iron ;  indeed,  in  some  of  the  best  grades  no 
trace  can  be  found.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  crystal 
form  is  generally  employed  for  the  very  best  qualities. 

Sulphate  of  alumina  is  much  more  soluble  than 
crystal  alum,  which  requires  18  parts  of  water 
as  against  2  parts  required  to  dissolve  I  part  of 
the  alumina. 

The  amount  of  alum  (or  alumina)  required  to 
decompose  the  resin  soap  will  depend  on  the  amount 
of  resinate  of  soda  to  be  acted  on.  A  size  which 
contains  a  large  percentage  of  free  resin,  already 
precipitated  by  the  degree  of  dilution  to  which  it 
has  been  reduced,  will  require  less  than  one  in  which 
the  percentage  of  sodium  resinate  is  greater. 

To  ascertain  the  exact  amount  necessary  to  de- 
compose the  size,  about  50  c.c.  should  be  placed  in 
a  glass  flask,  and  the  number  of  c.c.  of  alum 
necessary  to  convert  all  the  resinate  of  soda  into 
resinate  of  alumina  run  in  from  a  graduated  burette. 

In  this  way  the  correct  proportions  for  the  solutions 
employed  in  each  particular  mill  can  be  arrived  at. 
Most  paper-makers  add  to  the  pulp  a  larger  proportion 
of  alum  than  is  required  to  form  the  size  coating. 

This   excess  has  the  effect  of  hardening  the  paper 


INFLUENCE  OF  WATER  ON  SIZING.,  87 

and  giving  to  it  a  better  rattle,  and  also  acts  as  a 
mordant  in  helping  to  fix  the  colour. 

If  the  water  used  in  the  mill  contains  magnesium 
or  lime  salts,  or,  in  other  words,  is  hard,  a  much 
larger  quantity  of  alum  will  have  to  be  employed 
to  obtain  a  well-sized  paper. 

When  size  is  added  to  an  engine  furnished  with 
hard  water,  it  is  decomposed  as  a  flaky  precipitate, 
owing  to  the  action  of  the  sulphates  of  lime  and 
magnesia  in  forming  resinate  of  lime  and  resinate  of 
magnesia  when  brought  into  contact  with  the  resinate 
of  soda.  If,  however,  sufficient  alum  be  added  to 
precipitate  the  lime  and  magnesium  salts,  before  the 
addition  of  the  size,  this  decomposition  can  be  pre- 
vented, and  the  resinate  of  alumina  formed  as  usual. 

The  best  plan  is  to  add  the  size  after  the  alum  used 
to  neutralise  the  lime  and  magnesium  salts  has  been 
thoroughly  mixed,  and  then  to  run  in  the  amount 
required  to  combine  with  the  resin.  It  is  said  that, 
in  this  way,  the  precipitate  formed  by  the  action  of  the 
alum  on  the  salts,  which  are  the  cause  of  the  hardness 
of  the  water,  is  not  so  liable  to  be  decomposed  by  the 
excess  of  alum  used,  as  the  presence  of  the  size  pre- 
vents it  from  remaining  in  contact  with  the  pulp  in 
the  free  state,  owing  to  the  ease  with  which  the 
resinate  of  alumina  is  formed. 

The  exact  amount  necessary  to  precipitate  the  salts 
contained  in  the  water  can  easily  be  determined  by 
treating  a  small  quantity  of  it  with  a  solution  of  the 


88  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

alum  used.  The  number  of  c.c.  required  to  give  a 
precipitate  can  be  seen  from  the  markings  on  the 
burette,  and  thus  the  amount  required  for  the  gallons 
contained  in  the  engine  is  simply  a  matter  of  pro- 
portion. 

Though  the  water  supply,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, may  be  sufficiently  free  from  impurities,  a 
sudden  flood  may  change  the  channel  and  lay  bare 
lime  and  magnesium  compounds  which,  when  carried 
into  solution,  will  have  a  deleterious  effect  on  the 
sizing.  When  the  water  contains  carbonic  acid  the 
danger  of  this  is  much  increased,  as  the  acid  dis- 
solves the  lime  as  a  carbonate,  identical  with  the 
carbonate  of  lime  formed  by  the  action  of  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  air  in  the  lime  left  on  the  fibres  by  the 
bleaching  solution. 

The  extent  to  which  the  decomposition  of  the  alum 
may  be  carried,  owing  to  the  presence  of  these  salts, 
either  in  the  water  or  in  the  pulp,  will  be  easily  seen 
from  a  glance  at  the  following  equation  : — 

A12  +  K2  4  SO4  +  24  H2O  +  2  CaCO3 
54  +  78  +  128  +  256          +  80  +  24  +  96  = 

948  +  200 

2  CaSO4  +  A12O3  +  K2SO4  +  2  CO2  +  SO3  +  24  H2O. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  should  the  water  in  the 
engine  contain  I  Ib.  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  solution, 
almost  5  Ibs.  of  potash  alum  will  be  decomposed,  and 
thus  rendered  ineffective  for  sizing  purposes. 

A  consideration  of  the  above  facts  will  show  that, 


INFLUENCE  OF  HEAT  ON  SIZING.  89 

in  order  to  size  paper  effectively  and  economically, 
the  greatest  vigilance  must  be  exercised  to  see  that 
the  solutions  used  are  kept  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
proportions  which  practical  experiments,  in  each  mill, 
have  shown  to  be  necessary. 

The  contact  with  the  heated  cylinders  on  the 
machine,  and  the  degree  of  heat  to  which  the  paper 
is  subjected,  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  rendering  the 
size  coating  effective.  This  is  probably  due  to  the 
resinate  of  alumina,  which  has  been  precipitated  on 
the  fibres  in  the  engine,  becoming  fused,  and  spread 
out,  over,  and  into  the  interstices  of  the  paper  in  such 
a  way  as  to  greatly  increase  the  water-resisting  power. 

That  the  sizing  of  paper,  dried  by  the  contact  with 
the  machine  cylinders,  is  much  better  than  a  similar 
paper  dried  by  hot  air,  may  be  tested  by  taking  a 
piece  from  the  web  after  it  has  passed  the  second 
press  rolls,  but  before  coming  into  contact  with  the 
heated  cylinders,  and  drying  it  in  a  hot  atmosphere. 
A  piece  should  be  taken  from  near  the  same  place  in 
the  web,  but  after  having  been  thoroughly  dried  by 
passing  over  the  cylinders,  and  when  the  first  sample 
is  perfectly  dry,  the  relative  water-resisting  power  can 
easily  be  determined. 

Wetting  with  the  tongue  will  show  that  the  paper 
dried  by  hot  air,  without  any  contact  with  a  heated 
body,  is  very  poorly  sized  compared  with  the  piece 
which  passed  over  the  cylinders.  An  accurate  idea  of 
the  relative  sizing  can  be  obtained  by  placing  a  drop 


90  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

of  a  dilute  alcoholic  solution,  coloured  with  a  little 
carnation  in  order  to  render  the  effect  more  noticeable, 
on  each  of  the  samples,  and  observing  the  time  which 
it  takes  to  penetrate  to  the  other  side  in  each  case. 

The  initial  cost  of  the  hides  and  piths  used  in  animal 
size-making,  as  well  as  the  expense  in  preparation  and 
application,  has  led  to  investigations  with  a  view  to 
finding  a  substitute  which,  while  being  less  expensive 
to  begin  with,  can  be  applied  with  satisfactory  results 
to  the  pulp  in  the  beating  engine,  thus  doing  away 
with  the  necessity  for  the  expensive  drying  plant.  The 
substance  which  has  as  yet  shown  the  best  results  as 
a  substitute  for  animal  size  is  milk  caseine. 

Caseine  is  the  name  given  to  that  portion  of  milk 
which  contains  albumen.  This  albumen  is  analogous 
to  that  obtained  from  eggs  and  blood,  and  when  a 
paper  is  coated  with  it  it  becomes  capable  of  resisting 
the  penetrating  action  of  water  just  as  a  gelatine-sized 
paper  does.  When  dry,  milk  caseine  takes  the  form 
of  a  slightly  yellow  powder,  which  dissolves  somewhat 
sparingly  in  water. 

The  caseine  for  sizing  is  generally  dissolved  in  a 
very  dilute  solution  of  ammonia,  and  in  this  state  may 
be  added  to  the  pulp  in  the  engine.  When  used  in 
this  way,  however,  there  is  a  considerable  loss  owing 
to  the  finest  of  the  albuminates  precipitated  by  the 
alum  passing  away  with  the  back-water  on  the  machine. 

Dr.  Muth,  a  strong  advocate  of  caseine  sizing,  pre- 
pares the  ammonium  albumen,  as  the  caseine  is 


CASEINE  SIZING.  91 

generally  termed,  with  a  solution  of  ordinary  resin 
size  prior  to  adding  it  to  the  pulp;  and  in  this  way 
he  claims  that  the  finest  albuminates  are  fixed  by  the 
size,  and  thus  prevented  from  being  carried  away  with 
the  machine  back-water. 

For  fine  papers  Dr.  Muth  recommends  the  use  of 
4  to  5  parts  of  caseine  to  ij  parts  of  resin,  and  3^ 
parts  of  sulphate  of  alumina  to  precipitate.  These 
proportions  can  be  changed  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  papers  to  be  sized. 

Among  the  advantages  claimed  for  milk  sizing  may 
be  mentioned  the  greater  elasticity  of  the  fibres  when 
compared  with  resin-sized  papers — an  increased  yield 
owing  to  the  precipitated  albuminates  being  retained 
among  the  fibres.  It  is  also  claimed  that,  owing  to  the 
fatty  substances  present  in  the  caseine,  frothing  on 
the  machine  is  much  reduced,  and  a  larger  percentage 
of  loading  carried  with  less  injury  to  the  tear,  owing 
to  the  union  of  the  caseine  with  the  loading  materials. 
This  union  is  said  to  entirely  prevent  dusting  when 
cutting  and  printing. 

Caseine  may  also  be  used  for  surface  sizing,  and 
when  dried  at  a  temperature  of  266°  Fahr.  is  said  to 
become  quite  insoluble.  When  adding  to  the  engine 
it  should  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  mixed  with 
the  pulp  before  the  alum,  which  must  always  be 
present  in  excess,  is  run  into  it. 

Though  it  can  be  readily  understood  that  the  gela- 
tinous precipitate  formed  on  the  fibres  will  resist  the 


92  PRACTICAL  PAPER  MAKING. 

action  of  water  much  better  than  the  resinate  of 
alumina  resulting  from  the  resin  size,  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  how  the  coating  thus  formed  will  possess 
the  same  resisting  power  as  that  from  the  thick,  strong 
gelatine  which  composes  good  animal  size.  In  mills 
possessing  no  facilities  for  surface  sizing,  it  might  be 
used  with  advantage  for  the  sizing  of  a  better  class  of 
papers  than  the  usual  engine-sized  qualities. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE  FOURDRINIER   MACHINE   AND   ITS 
MANAGEMENT. 

IN  most  mills  considerable  difficulty  is  experienced, 
in  preventing  the  emptying  of  the  beaters  from  dis- 
turbing the  weight  on  the  machine.  As  the  beaters 
are  usually  filled  to  the  lip,  there  is  no  room  to  allow 
of  the  water  being  sufficiently  mixed  with  the  pulp 
before  drawing  the  valve  ;  and  the  result  is  that  the 
thick  stuff  reaches  the  chests,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
motion  of  the  agitator,  sinks  to  the  bottom  and  is 
drawn  into  the  pipe  supplying  the  stuff  cock-box  before 
the  water  can  be  got  down. 

When  making  a  large,  heavy  sheet,  a  difference  of 
5  or  6  Ibs.  in  the  ream  may  be  caused  by  this  thick 
stuff  before  the  water  can  equalise  it.  Several  devices 
have  been  tried  in  order  to  do  away  with  this  as  much 
as  possible.  One  of  these  consists  in  placing  a  metal 
float  in  a  small  box  through  which  the  stuff  is  led 
after  it  leaves  the  stuff-cock. 

The  float  is  connected  with  a  water-cock  in  such  a 

93 


94  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

way  that  when  it  rises,  owing  to  the  thickening  of  the 
stuff,  the  water  is  turned  on,  and  continues  to  run 
until  the  pulp  has  been  reduced  by  it  to  the  usual 
thickness,  when  the  float  sinks  down  and  closes  the 
cock. 

In  some  mills  a  small  chest  capable  of  holding  about 
IOO  Ibs.  of  pulp,  and  fitted  with  an  agitator,  is  used  as 
a  stuff-cock  box,  but  with  no  great  advantage ;  and 
when  working  out,  the  difference  in  pressure  as  the 
level  of  the  stuff  becomes  lowered  causes  light  weight, 
in  spite  of  the  attention  of  the  machine-man  in  gra- 
dually putting  up  the  stuff-cock. 

The  best  plan,  though  not  always  the  most  con- 
venient, is  to  place  a  chest,  capable  of  holding  the 
contents  of  the  beater  when  diluted  with  water  to  the 
usual  consistency,  in  such  a  position  that  it  can  empty 
into  either  of  the  machine  chests.  When  the  pulp  and 
water  have  been  thoroughly  mixed,  it  can  thus  be 
allowed  to  flow  into  whichever  chest  it  is  desired  to 
fill,  and  being  always  of  the  same  thickness,  the  weight 
is  not  disturbed. 

When  no  such  plan  is  adopted,  the  chests  should 
be  connected  by  a  pipe  fitted  with  a  valve,  so  that 
either  can  be  shut  off  when  working  out  or  changing, 
and  the  engines  should  be  emptied  into  the  chest,  the 
cock  of  which  is  shut,  and  which  communicates  with 
the  one  out  of  which  the  pump  is  drawing  the  supply 
of  stuff  for  the  machine  by  means  of  the  connection 
pipe.  In  this  way  the  thick  stuff  has  time  to  become 


STUFF   CHESTS.— AGITATORS.  95 

more  diluted  before  it  finds  its  way  through  the  con- 
necting pipe  to  the  chest  supplying  the  machine. 

If  the  chests  are  of  iron,  the  inside  should  be 
covered  with  a  coating  of  cement  or  some  other  non- 
corrosive  substance.  Chests  coated  in  this  way  will 
keep  clean  longer,  and  when  dirty  be  much  easier 
washed,  than  if  they  were  not  coated.  If  the  agitators 
revolve  too  slowly,  a  great  deal  of  trouble  will  arise 
from  bad  weight,  especially  when  making  thick  papers 
carrying  a  large  percentage  of  loading. 

Agitators  that  revolve  too  quickly  are,  however,  very 
apt  to  churn  grass  stuff  into  soft  knots,  which  are  with 
difficulty  broken  up  by  the  strainer.  A  good  speed 
for  all  round  work  is  six  or  seven  revolutions  in  the 
minute.  When  the  stock  used  consists  of  rags,  the 
speed  may  be  quickened  to  eight  or  nine  revolutions 
without  doing  any  injury, 

It  is  most  essential  that  the  stuff  pump  be  capable 
of  pumping  sufficient  stuff  to  give  a  good  overflow 
when  the  machine  is  working  at  its  full  breadth  and 
speed,  as  a  poor  stuff  pump  is  a  great  hindrance  to 
the  turning  out  of  a  good  weight.  To  ensure  that  an 
ordinary  pump  will  work  easily,  without  any  undue 
straining  or  jarring,  the  pipe  from  the  chests  should 
not  be  less  than  four  inches  in  diameter. 

A  new  form  of  stuff  pump,  which  has  lately  been 
introduced,  works  without  the  rubbers,  which  are  such 
a  nuisance  in  the  older  forms.  The  bottom  ball  works 
into  the  pipe,  while  the  top  one  works  into  a  cavity  in 


96  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

the  barrel,  and  against  an  iron  saucer  fitted  to  the  top 
of  the  cover.  The  balls  may  be  of  metal ;  but  if  so, 
they  are  apt  to  check  the  stuff  and  cause  white  chips 
to  appear  when  making  blue  papers,  so  that  rubber 
ones  give  most  satisfaction. 

When  the  felts  used  to  cover  the  sand-trap  are 
nailed  down,  they  should  be  carried  up  the  sides  also, 
so  that  no  stuff  may  get  in  below,  otherwise  the  stuff 
and  dirt  which  will  accumulate  underneath  will  come 
away  at  times  and  cause  much  broke.  If  they  are 
simply  held  down  by  leads,  which  is  the  better  plan, 
a  spare  set  should  always  be  kept,  so  that  they  may 
be  washed  thoroughly  and  be  ready  to  put  down  when 
the  trap  is  washed  out. 

It  seems  to  be  a  fixed  idea  with  the  majority  of 
paper-makers  that,  in  order  to  get  clean  paper  with  a 
revolving  strainer,  it  must  be  worked  with  the  plates 
covered.  It  is  very  doubtful,  however,  if  much  or  even 
any  advantage  is  gained  by  this  method  of  working, 
as  the  strain  on  the  bellows  is  much  harder,  and,  the 
suction  being  stronger,  the  dirt  is  more  liable  to  be 
drawn  through  the  slits  than  would  be  the  case  if  the 
strainer  were  drawing  a  little  air  and  thus  working 
more  easily. 

It  is  often  remarked,  in  recommending  this  or  that 
special  style  of  strainer,  that  it  can  take  through  a 
larger  amount  of  stuff  in  the  hour  than  any  other. 
Those  who  talk  in  this  way  seem  to  forget  that  the 
first  requirement  in  a  strainer  is  to  keep  back  dirt, 


REVOLVING   STRAINERS.  97 

and  not  merely  to  force  through  a  large  amount  of 
stuff.  A  strainer  which  takes  through  a  more  than 
usually  large  amount  of  stuff  in  an  hour  will  be  almost 
certain  to  draw  through  a  more  than  proportionally 
large  amount  of  dirt,  especially  if  the  increased  power 
be  due  to  extra  suction. 

It  cannot  escape  .notice  that,  when  the  flat  strainers, 
which  work  by  suction,  fill  up  and  get  no  air,  a  much 
larger  amount  of  dirt  will  come  through  than  when 
they  are  drawing  air.  The  better  plan  would  seem  to 
be  to  work  two  strainers  at  an  easy  suction,  rather 
than  force  dirt  and  stuff  through  one  by  shutting 
out  the  air  and  taxing  the  bellows  to  the  utter- 
most. 

For  straining  fine  stuff  the  plates  should  be  of  as 
narrow  a  cut  as  will  take  through  the  stuff  without 
undue  strain.  The  better  qualities  of  writing  papers 
are,  as  a  rule,  made  from  very  fine  stuff,  and,  conse- 
quently, will  work  easily  through  2\  or  3  cut  plates, 
but  for  banks  and  loans  cut  4  or  4^  is  necessary, 
while  the  long  stuff  prepared  for  cartridge  papers 
should  be  strained  through  cut  5  or  5^. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  work  fine  cut  plates  for  long  stuff, 
as  the  rubbing  necessary  carries  more  dirt  and  knots 
into  the  sheet  than  would  get  through  if  wider  plates 
were  used.  Whatever  may  be  the  width  of  the  plates, 
the  greatest  care  should  always  be  paid  to  having  them 
fit  properly  down  on  the  frame.  If  the  plates  fit  badly, 
dirt  and  knots  will  get  through  in  spite  of  all  the  care 

7 


98  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

given  to  the  choice  of  the  width  of  the  cut,  and  the 
same  applies  to  badly-fitting  bolts. 

It  often  happens  that  when  the  original  bolts  become 
used  up  or  lost  the  new  ones  supplied  are  a  little 
longer,  and  do  not  fit  up  to  the  head ;  or  they  may 
be  a  little  smaller,  through  the  holes  having  become 
worn  and  apt  to  become  slack  with  the  working  of  the 
bellows,  especially  if  the  plates  be  worked  covered. 
If  the  bolts  are  too  long  the  head  will  exert  no 
pressure  on  the  plate  to  keep  it  down  on  the  frame, 
and,  consequently,  the  stuff  which  works  down  the 
thread  of  the  bolt  will  find  its  way  under  the  plate  and 
into  the  paper  unstrained,  and  in  all  likelihood  it  will 
have  become  rolled  into  a  small,  hard  knot  in  its 
passage  down  the  thread.  The  same  thing  will  occur 
if  any  of  the  bolts  work  slack,  or  if  the  plates  do  not 
fit  close  up  to  the  frame. 

The  knots  which  are  caused  by  these  defects  are 
easily  recognisable,  as  they  are  hard  and  rounded,  and, 
unlike  the  knots  which  are  in  the  stuff,  they  are  raised 
up  on  the  surface  of  the  sheet.  When  the  packing  of 
the  strainer  ends  has  become  worn,  the  knots  made 
by  the  working  of  the  stuff  between  the  vat  and  the 
journal  of  the  strainer  are  not  so  round,  but  more 
feathery  shaped. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  long  grass  stuff  becomes 
churned  into  soft  knots  in  the  chests,  and  these, 
especially  if  the  plates  are  worn  wide,  are  very  liable 
to  pass  through  the  slits  unbroken  and  appear  in  the 


ESPARTO   KNOTS.  99 

sheet.  If  such  stuff,  instead  of  being  run  straight 
from  the  stuff  cock  into  the  sand  trap,  is  led  into  the 
box  which  receives  the  water  from  the  save-all,  and 
drawn  with  the  water  through  the  pumps,  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  knots  will  be  broken  up  by  contact 
with  the  sides  of  the  pumps  and  pressure  in  passing 
the  rubbers. 

If  this  arrangement  is  not  a  suitable  one,  another 
plan  is  to  blow  a  jet  of  steam  against  the  stuff  in  its 
passage  to  the  strainer.  This  should  never  be  done 
if  it  can  possibly  be  dispensed  with,  as  the  steam  heats 
the  stuff  and  renders  it  very  free,  and,  in  addition, 
takes  much  of  the  firmness  and  rattle  from  the  finished 
paper. 

If  as  much  as  possible  of  the  backwater  be  run  off, 
and  spring  water  used  to  make  up  what  is  needed, 
the  weakening  action  will  be  much  lessened,  as  the 
cold  water  will  counteract  the  heating  which  is  the 
cause  of  the  softening.  Even  when  the  amount  of 
steam  used  is  small,  the  backwater  soon  becomes 
heated  by  coming  into  contact  with  it  so  often. 

Though  the  small  strainer  often  used  as  a  breast-box 
does  catch  strings  and  blotches,  yet  if  it  runs  more 
than  twelve  hours  without  cleaning,  the  blotches  which 
will  break  away  from  it  will  cause  a  considerable 
amount  of  broke. 

This  is  especially  the  case  when  calenders  are  at- 
tached to  the  machine,  as  the  blotches  adhere  to  the 
rolls,  and,  in  addition  to  the  broke  thus  made,  a 


ioo  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

great  deal  of  extra  labour  is  entailed  in  keeping  them 
clean.  A  box  small  enough  to  secure  a  sufficient 
agitation  by  the  rush  of  the  stuff,  and  at  the  same 
time  give  a  steady  head  of  stuff  behind  the  slice,  will 
be  found  most  suitable  and  will  take  up  less  space. 
For  a  machine  on  which  there  is  much  changing,  and, 
indeed,  for  any  machine,  Holloway's  patent  deckles  and 
knees  are  the  best. 

With  the  older  forms,  even  though  the  change  may 
be  merely  an  inch  or  two,  the  tacks  have  to  be  taken 
out  and  the  apron  rolled  up  when  putting  in  the  deckles, 
and  vice  versa  when  drawing  out.  On.  thick  papers 
a  great  deal  of  trouble  is  often  caused  by  the  small 
knots  or  rolls  of  stuff  which  are  formed  when  the 
apron  refuses  to  lie  properly.  These  rolls  are  often 
carried  in  by  the  action  of  the  shake,  and  with  difficulty 
removed  with  the  cutting. 

These  older  forms  have  this  advantage,  that  when 
making  blues  there  is  no  white  streak  on  the  edge, 
such  as  is  caused  when  the  stuff  works  under  the 
leather  of  the  patent  knees.  When  the  amount  of 
broke  made  when  changing  from  a  narrow  to  a  broad 
deckle,  or  vice  versa,  is  taken  into  account,  the  gain 
in  cutting  on  blue  papers  seems  somewhat  insig- 
nificant. 

Should  the  apron  have  been  rolled  up  for  any  length 
of  time  it  often  refuses  to  lie  flat ;  a  hand-bowl  or  two 
of  hot  water  will  soften  it,  and  make  it  lie  quite  evenly 
on  to  the  wire.  A  thick  strip  of  felt  soaked  in  water 


HOLLOW  AY'S    PATENT   DECKLES.  ior 

should  always  be  laid  along  the  edge  when  it  has  to 
stand  dry  for  any  length  of  time.  The  movable  knees 
should  be  kept  up  an  inch  or  so,  that  the  apron  may 
lie  close  into  the  deckle  strap,  and  so  make  a  good 
edge. 

By  pressing  down  the  knee  against  the  strap  it  can 
be  pushed  out  a  little,  and  thus  a  little  more  cutting 
room  may  be  gained.  To  make  a  good  edge  with 
the  patent  knees,  the  rubber  pads  must  be  fitted  so 
as  to  come  close  up  to  the  leather,  and  lie  down  on 
the  apron  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  any  stuff  leak- 
ing out. 

The  apron  should  extend  just  as  far  under  the 
deckle  pulley  as  is  possible  without  coming  in  contact 
with  the  strap,  should  it  have  to  be  lowered  a  little 
with  the  deckle  frame  through  the  leather  having  be- 
come worn.  The  leather  should  fit  easily,  so  that  it 
may  rise  and  fall  with  the  motion  of  the  tube-roll, 
and  yet  keep  close  enough  down  to  prevent  stuff 
getting  under  it,  while  not  pressing  so  hard  as  to 
cause  knots. 

In  order  to  keep  them  working  in  this  smooth 
way  they  should  be  taken  out,  and  slides  cleaned 
and  rubbed  with  a  little  oil  whenever  the  knees  are 
off.  Care  must,  however,  be  taken  that  all  the  surplus 
oil  is  washed  off,  otherwise  it  may  get  on  the  strap, 
and  cause  it  to  grip  the  pulleys  hard,  through  pre- 
venting it  from  carrying  enough  water  to  make  it 
slide  over  them  easily. 


102  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

The  level  of  stuff  behind  the  slice  must  not  be 
too  high,  or  it  will  lap  over  the  strap,  and,  working 
between  the  leather  and  strap,  cause  small  knots  to 
pass  down  on  the  edge.  While  the  apron  should 
lie  slightly  up  to  the  wire,  it  must  not  be  raised  too 
much,  or  the  depth  of  stuff  as  it  leaves  the  breast-box 
will  be  apt  to  cause  currents  that  will  spoil  the  spread. 
Neglect  of  this,  trivial  as  it  appears,  is  often  the 
reason  why  on  some  machines  the  spread  gives  so 
much  more  trouble  than  on  others.  The  movable 
slice,  by  which  the  spread  is  regulated,  must  be 
worked  to  suit  the  different  natures  of  the  stuft. 
When  the  stuff  is  fine  and  carrying  the  water  well, 
the  slice  should  be  kept  well  down,  and  this  is 
especially  necessary  when  making  wove  papers.  To 
make  a  nice  close  wove  sheet,  the  stuff  must  be 
prepared  very  fine  and  not  soft.  No  more  water 
should  be  worked  than  is  necessary  to  close  the  sheet, 
and  just  sufficient  shake  to  felt  it  evenly,  while  the 
first  pump  should  be  well  closed. 

The  effect  of  such  working  is  especially  noticeable 
on  blue  and  yellow  woves,  as  keeping  the  pump 
shut  as  much  as  possible,  and  working  the  water 
smoothly  up  with  a  gentle  shake,  has  the  effect  of 
closing  a  blue  sheet  very  nicely  without  drawing  the 
colour  from  the  underside;  while  the  yellow  has  a 
clear  close  look,  without  the  crushed  appearance  so 
often  seen  when  much  water  is  worked. 

For  such  papers  in  the  ordinary  weights  the  speed 


FREE   STUFF.  103 

should  not  exceed  70  to  75  feet  a  minute.  When 
making  laid  more  water  will  have  to  be  put  on,  the 
slices  raised  a  turn  or  so,  the  shake  put  up,  and  the 
pump  opened.  If  the  slice  is  not  raised  when  much 
more  water  is  put  on,  the  depth  of  stuff  behind  it 
causes  such  a  rush  that  the  stuff  is  carried  a  good 
way  towards  the  pump  before  it  conies  under  the 
influence  of  the  shake,  and  as  the  shake  is  most 
powerful  just  at  the  slices,  it  can  less  afford  to  be 
lost.  If  the  laid  dandy  begins  to  "lift,"  there  is  too 
much  water  in  front  of  it,  and  to  cure  it  the  pump 
must  be  opened,  and  more  water  and  shake  put  on, 
if  necessary,  to  close  the  sheet. 

Bringing  up  the  water  by  means  of  the  shake,  and 
opening  the  pump  a  little,  will  generally  have  the 
effect  of  curing  it.  When  the  stuff  is  free  it  rushes 
out  from  beneath  the  slices  very  violently,  and  does 
not  settle  down  quickly.  Before  settling  down,  such 
stuff  rolls  over  on  itself,  just  like  a  wave,  after  it 
has  passed  the  slices,  and  the  more  free  it  becomes 
the  farther  will  it  travel  before  turning  over  and 
settling  down. 

A  careful  look  at  very  free  stuff  on  the  wire  will 
show  that,  even  when  close  to  the  pump,  the  finest 
of  the  fibres  are  still  in  a  state  of  agitation.  In 
addition  to  causing  a  rush,  the  slices  when  worked 
very  low  down  catch  the  ultimate  fibres,  and,  turning 
them  on  end,  cause  the  sheet  to  have  a  broken  un- 
felted  appearance.  This  is  more  noticeable  when 


I04  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

working  long  stuff,  and  is  the  cause  of  the  wavy, 
streaked  appearance  of  thick  coloured  sheets.  The 
thicker  the  sheet,  the  more  shake  is  required  to  felt 
it,  and  when  making  thick  cartridge  or  envelope 
papers,  for  which  the  stuff  has  been  kept  long,  the 
slices  will  also  have  to  be  raised,  so  that  enough 
water  may  be  worked  to  assist  in  closing  the  long 
fibres. 

When  long  stuff  is  free,  it  will  not  stand  much 
shaking,  as  the  edges  are  apt  to  be  thinned,  owing 
to  the  ease  with  which  the  stuff  is  lashed  back  by 
coming  in  contact  with  the  deckle  straps.  To  remedy 
this  the  shake  should  be  put  back,  more  water  put 
on,  and  the  slices  raised. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary,  owing  to  the  bad  con- 
struction of  the  breast-box  or  apron-board,  to  stick 
pieces  of  paper  on  the  slices,  so  as  to  check  the 
rush  at  some  places,  before  an  equal  spread  can  be 
obtained.  This  has  the  same  effect  on  the  portion 
of  the  sheet  which  comes  under  it  as  having  the 
slices  too  low. 

It  often  happens,  that  after  working  out  or  being 
shut  down  for  some  time,  the  stuff,  from  being  milled 
so  long,  will  be  too  soft.  ,  Such  stuff  is  the  most 
difficult  of  all  to  work,  as  it  lies  so  dead  on  the  wire 
that  it  requires  water  and  an  energetic  shake  to 
spread  it,  while  it  parts  with  the  water  so  badly  that 
it  is  seldom  enough  can  be  put  on  to  make  a  good 
sheet. 


FINE   STUFF  105 

When  stuff  is  both  fine  and  soft,  the  paper  will 
have  a  crushed  appearance,  especially  if  working 
a  wove  dandy,  and  will  be  very  likely  to  stick  to 
the  press-roll.  In  such  a  case  the  shake  should  be 
put  back  as  much  as  possible,  consistent  with  closing 
the  sheet,  the  first  pump  opened  under  the  same 
restrictions,  and  the  air-cock  on  the  second  pump-box 
shut,  so  as  to  suck  the  paper  as  dry  as  possible. 

The  guard-board  should  be  put  down,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  passage  of  any  water,  and  the  weights 
on  the  couch-roll  increased.  This  has  the  effect  of 
drying  the  paper  still  further,  and  making  it  less 
likely  to  adhere  to  the  press-roll.  The  press-roll 
should  be  put  down  as  lightly  as  possible,  and  the 
wet  felt  tightened  up  so  as  to  open  the  warp,  and 
allow  the  water  to  be  pressed  out  more  readily. 

Pouring  a  little  turpentine  on  the  coucher  or  press- 
roll  has  the  effect  of  taking  away  such  greasiness 
for  a  minute  or  two,  and  enabling  the  web  to  be 
taken  off  the  press-roll  without  any  difficulty.  When 
once  down,  and  under  the  tension  of  the  draw  to 
the  second  press,  or  cylinder,  the  liability  to  stick 
again  is  not  so  great,  so  that  by  the  use  of  a  little 
of  this  grease-destroying  agent  much  broke  may  be 
saved. 

Considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists  among 
paper-makers  as  to  which  is  the  most  suitable  length 
for  the  machine  wire.  The  writer  has  had  experience 
in  making  paper  with  32  feet,  38  feet,  40  feet,  and 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


lo6  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

45  feet  wires,  and,  from  a  careful  study  of  the  be- 
haviour of  the  different  kinds  of  stuff  on  each,  is 
of  the  opinion  that  for  making  the  best  qualities, 
where  look  is  of  the  first  importance,  the  best  results 
will  be  obtained  from  a  38  to  40  feet  wire. 

To  get  a  passable  sheet  on  a  45  or  50  ft.  wire 
the  stuff  must  be  very  free,  otherwise  it  will  be  so 
inert  before  it  reaches  the  dandy  that  the  papers  will 
have  a  dull,  crushed  look,  especially  when  making 
woves.  When  the  stuff  is  free  enough  to  counteract 
this  deadness,  the  number  of  tube-rolls  in  contact 
with  the  wire  take  away  so  much  of  the  water  that 
it  is  often  difficult  to  obtain  a  clear  impression  with  the 
dandy,  though  more  water  be  put  on. 

The  water,  leaving  the  paper  thus,  can  be  much 
reduced  in  quantity  if  a  number  of  the  tube-rolls  are 
lowered  out  of  contact.  In  this  way  the  advantage 
of  a  longer  time  under  the  influence  of  the  shake  is 
gained,  while  the  amount  of  water  leaving  the  stuff 
can  be  regulated  by  putting  up  or  letting  down  the 
tube-rolls.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  greater  the  amount  of  backwater,  the  less  likely 
is  the  paper  to  be  sized  and  loaded  up  to  the  expec- 
tations formed,  from  the  amount  of  these  materials 
added  in  the  engine. 

The  speed  at  which  the  machine  is  to  be  driven, 
and  the  nature  of  the  stock  to  be  worked,  must 
always  be  taken  into  consideration  in  regard  to  the 
length  of  wire  to  be  put  in.  For  the  proper  working 


LONG   AND   SHORT    WIRES.  107 

of  soft  greasy  stuff  at  a  quick  speed,  a  50  ft.  wire  will 
be  an  advantage,  in  giving  more  time  to  get  the  water 
taken  out ;  while  for  fine  stuff,  not  too  soft,  worked 
at  a  moderate  speed,  a  wire  40  ft.  in  length  will  be 
best  suited.  The  speed  must  also  determine  the 
amount  of  pitch  to  be  given  to  the  wire. 

A  40  ft.  wire,  travelling  up  to  100  ft.  a  minute,  will 
require  a  pitch  of  about  f  of  an  inch  from  the  breast 
roll  to  the  first  guide-roll,  while  if  driven  at  a  speed 
of  200  ft.  a  minute  a  i£  inch  pitch  will  be  necessary. 
It  is  the  custom  with  some  engineers  to  put  in  very 
heavy  breast-rolls,  though  for  what  purpose  it  is 
difficult  to  see. 

In  addition  to  the  inconvenience  of  handling  a  heavy 
breast-roll,  when  putting  on  a  wire,  the  strain  on  the 
wire  to  keep  it  turning  is  very  great,  and  tends  to  wear 
it  out  much  sooner.  A  light  roll  would  answer  the 
purpose  equally  well,  and  offer  much  less  resistance 
to  the  wire  when  running,  as  well  as  being  much 
easier  to  shake. 

The  manner  in  which  the  shake  is  given  and  the 
length  of  the  stroke  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the 
spread  and  look  of  the  sheet.  If  the  stroke  is  too 
long  the  stuff  will  be  washed  back  from  the  deckle 
strap,  thinning  the  edges,  and  causing  a  white  mark, 
similar  to  that  caused  by  a  ridge,  to  appear  about 
3  inches  from  the  edge  on  each  side. 

Should  the  brasses  which  support  the  shake  bars 
become  worn,  or  the  pins  which  connect  the  bars  with 


To8  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

the  frame  be  too  thin,  the  double  shake,  caused  by  the 
play  of  the  brasses  or  pins,  will  counteract  the  original 
shake,  and,  instead  of  the  smooth  push  and  pull,  a 
jerky  disconnected  motion,  which  will  be  sure  to  thin 
the  edges,  will  be  given. 

The  end  of  the  save-all  should  not  come  quite  up 
to  the  breast-roll,  but  should  be  so  placed  as  to  ensure 
that  no  stuff  may  become  jammed  between  it  and  the 
roll.  When  too  close,  any  stuff  which  may  pass  round 
the  roll  will,  instead  of  passing  on  to  the  felt-covered 
guard-stick  and  being  washed  away  by  the  water,  lie 
against  it  and  the  roll  until  it  becomes  hard,  when  it 
will  act  as  a  serious  drag  on  it  when  turning.  A 
strong  flow  of  water  should  always  be  kept  on 
the  guard-stick,  which,  while  being  close  enough  to 
catch  the  stuff,  should  not  press  too  hard  on  the 
roll. 

Machines  which  work  strong  greasy  stuff  are  some- 
times fitted  with  three  pump  boxes,  so  that  no 
difficulty  may  be  experienced  in  taking  out  the  water. 
The  majority,  however,  have  only  two,  and  when  the 
stuff  is  greasy  a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  broke  is 
often  caused  by  the  water  flooding  over  the  boxes  and 
" worming"  in  front  of  the  coucher. 

This  is  more  liable  to  happen  when  the  bars  on  the 
pump-box  are  faced  with  mahogany  than  if  vulcanite, 
brass,  or  glass  has  been  used  to  face  them.  Mahogany- 
faced  boxes,  though  less  hard  on  the  wire,  are  very 
apt  to  vibrate  when  drawing  hard,  and  this  prevents 


COUCH-ROLLS.  109 

the  air-cock  from  being  shut  as  much  as  is  needful  to 
enable  the  pumps  to  draw  the  water  out. 

A  strip  of  vulcanite  inserted  between  two  layers  of 
mahogany  along  the  ends  and  sides  of  the  pump  box 
does  away  with  the  vibration  to  a  great  extent,  but  it 
must  be  fitted  very  closely,  otherwise  it  will  draw  air. 

By  working  a  jacket  on  the  under  couch-roll  the 
paper  will  be  less  rough  on  the  underside  than  if  it  is 
worked  bare,  and  it  will  also  bulk  better.  Being  less 
dry,  however,  the  paper  is  much  more  apt  to  stick  to 
the  press-roll. 

Another  objection,  and  perhaps  the  most  serious  of 
all,  is  that  the  small  particles  of  sand  or  grit,  liable  to 
get  into  the  cover,  ridge  and  score  the  wire  very 
badly,  and  if  the  wire  is  run  bare  for  any  time  it 
is  very  bad  for  running  into  a  crease.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  when  a  wire,  after  running  some  time, 
becomes  slack  on  either  of  the  edges,  it  is  generally 
the  backside  if  the  water  for  the  wash-roll  enters 
at  the  foreside,  and  vice  versa  if  it  enters  from  the 
back. 

The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  small  holes  in  the 
water  pipe  are  apt  to  become  choked  up  at  the  end 
farthest  from  the  inflow,  and  the  wire,  owing  to  being 
much  more  dry,  is  strained  in  its  passage  over  the 
rolls.  Apart  from  this,  a  good  strong  shower  should 
always  be  kept  on  the  wash-roll,  in  order  that  any  free 
acid  left  in  the  pulp  and  liable  to  become  deposited  in 
the  meshes  may  be  washed  out. 


no  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

Attention  to  this,  and  also  to  thoroughly  washing  the 
wire  when  shutting  down  for  any  length  of  time,  will 
keep  the  meshes  clear,  lessen  the  strain  of  the  pumps, 
and  improve  the  appearance  of  the  sheet,  in  addition 
to  prolonging  the  life  of  the  wire. 

When  making  soft  sized  papers,  the  froth  is  usually 
much  more  troublesome  than  when  alum  has  been 
added  to  the  pulp.  This  froth  often  comes  away  with 
the  stuff  from  under  the  slices,  and  makes  "  worms." 
To  cure  this,  the  slices  must  either  be  lowered  a  little 
or  more  water  put  on,  so  that  the  level  behind  the 
slices  may  be  raised  and  prevent  the  froth  escaping. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  lower  them  too  much,  or 
the  rush  of  stuff  underneath  will  cause  the  carbonic 
acid,  always  more  or  less  liable  to  be  present  in  the 
water  used  in  the  beaters,  to  escape,  and  in  doing  so 
to  cause  "  bells,"  which,  when  broken  by  the  dandy, 
leave  a  mark  on  the  surface  of  the  paper.  This 
frothing  and  belling  is  always  worse  when  steam  is 
used  to  clear  knots  in  the  pulp,  and  should  any  of 
the  bleaching  solution  used  in  the  engine  remain  un- 
decomposed,  the  heat  will  have  the  effect  of  liberating 
the  carbonic  acid,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  froth. 

Sometimes,  even  when  the  slices  are  kept  clear  of 
froth,  small  bubbles  will  escape  on  the  edge  and 
come  down  the  wire  with  the  deckle  strap.  These 
bubbles  are  often  the  unsuspected  cause  of  worming 
at  the  dandy,  especially  should  the  edge  be  a  little 
thickened  and  the  pump-box  end  not  full  out.  Under 


FROTH-KILLERS.  Ill 

these  conditions  they  are  not  broken  by  the  suction 
of  the  pump,  and  passing  along  the  front  of  the  dandy 
cause  the  worms  to  come  away. 

If  drawing  out  the  deckle  strap  a  little  and  also  the 
end  of  the  pump  does  not  cure  the  trouble,  a  piece  of 
soft  paper  should  be  folded  so  as  to  fit  in  behind  the 
slices  close  to  the  knee  and  along  it  a  little,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  bubbles  escaping  along  the  edge  of  the 
strap. 

The  bells  which  gather  on  the  edge  of  a  laid  dandy 
can  be  kept  away  by  rubbing  a  little  oil  on  the 
dandy  just  off  from  the  edge  of  the  paper,  or,  better 
still,  by  moistening  the  cloth  used  to  keep  away  spots 
just  over  the  edge  with  a  little  sperm  oil,  which  has 
the  same  effect. 

The  trouble  with  froth  is  so  bad  in  some  mills  that 
patent  froth-killers  are  resorted  to  in  order  to  keep  it 
down.  These  concoctions  are  very  often  adulterated 
with  resin,  which  adulteration  is  sometimes  carried  to 
an  extent  that  causes  the  paper  to  stick  determinedly 
to  the  press-roll,  and  leaves  a  deposit  of  resin  among 
the  stuff  which  gathers  on  the  doctor. 

When  the  liability  to  froth  is  great,  special  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  water  used  in  the  engine,  as 
the  carbonic  acid  expelled  from  the  lime  salts  con- 
tained in  hard  water  is  often  one  of  the  sources  of 
its  origin. 

The  alum  solution  should  be  added  when  furnishing, 
and  if  the  water  be  hard  an  additional  quantity  of 


H2  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING 

alum  will  require  to  be  put  in  in  order  to  precipitate 
the  salts  contained  in  it. 

The  chlorine  compounds  must  be  completely  neutra- 
lised by  means  of  antichlor. 

The  following  recipe  is  said  to  make  a  very  efficient 
froth-killer,  the  use  of  which  will  lead  to  no  bad 
results  in  causing  the  paper  to  stick  to  the  press- 
roll  : — One-and-a-half  gallons  of  linseed  oil,  mixed 
with  one  gallon  of  bleach,  and  a  gill  and  a-half  of 
turpentine. 

To  keep  the  dandy  free  from  bells  when  making 
laid  papers  at  a  quick  speed,  a  gentle  puff  of  steam 
should  be  blown  through  it  from  a  perforated  iron 
pipe,  hung  down  in  front  of  it  in  such  a  way  that  the 
steam  will  meet  the  dandy  at  a  slight  angle  and  be 
blown  clear  of  the  stuff. 

For  quick  driving,  the  stuff  must  be  quickly  pre- 
pared in  the  beater,  so  that  it  may  not  be  soft,  but 
settle  down  quickly  and  part  with  the  water  easily. 
Though  the  engines  must  not  be  made  too  stiff  to 
prepare  such  stuff,  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should 
be  filled  thinner  than  usual. 

Stuff  prepared  in  an  engine  filled  about  the  usual 
consistency,  but  not  heavily,  when  treated  somewhat 
sharply  with  the  roll  at  first,  and  yet  not  so  cut  up 
as  to  be  rendered  fine,  will  felt  closely  and  part  with 
the  water  easily  though  made  at  a  quick  speed. 

When,  however,  the  engines  are  filled  with  a  larger 
proportion  of  water  than  usual,  lightly  loaded  (with 


STICKING   AT    THE   PRESS-ROLL.  113 

stuff,  not  clay,  or  other  so-called  "loading"  material) 
and  cut  up  quickly,  the  stuff  produced  will  undoubtedly 
be  free,  and  most  likely  fine,  at  least  the  finest  of  the 
fibres  will  be  very  fine,  owing  to  the  ease  with  which 
they  are  got  at  by  the  roll,  with  the  result  that  it  will 
"  bell,"  froth,  and  stick  to  the  press-roll. 

It  would  seem  as  if  such  stuff  when  once  up  the 
press-roll  had  not  enough  cohesiveness  to  stand  drawing 
down,  but  when  once  down  lacks  the  power  to  run 
up  so  often  as  might  be  expected,  from  the  difficulty 
experienced  in  getting  it  down  when  it  does  break ; 
as  it  will  be  noticed  that  with  stuff  thus  prepared  there 
are  fewer  breaks  at  the  press-roll  than  is  sometimes 
the  case  with  stuff  which  leaves  the  roll  much  more 
easily. 

It  sometimes  happens  when  making  wove  papers, 
with  the  pump  well  shut,  that  the  drawing  power  of 
the  pump  is  hampered  owing  to  the  cock  being  so 
much  closed,  and  when  this  is  the  case  the  back  lash 
from  the  pump  causes  the  paper,  especially  if  it  be 
thin,  to  fold  over  at  the  edge  in  an  almost  imperceptible 
crease.  This  crease  may  give  no  sign  of  its  presence 
until  the  last  set  of  cylinders,  or  calenders,  are  reached, 
but  it  is  almost  certain  to  cause  a  break  there.  A  little 
more  water,  or  shake,  and  the  pump  box  opened  a 
little,  will  make  this  disappear  entirely. 

Another  very  frequent  source  of  cracks  and  breaks 
between  the  cylinders  and  calenders  is  having  the  wire 
too  slack.  When  the  wire  is  too  slack  it  is  apt  to 


114  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

crease  the  paper  when  passing  under  the  couch-roll, 
but  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  scarcely  noticeable,  unless 
the  machine-man  knows  where  to  look  for  it. 

This  is  most  liable  to  happen  when  making  thick 
paper  with  a  narrow  deckle ;  and  the  first  thing  the 
machine-man  should  do,  when  he  is  at  a  loss  to  account 
for  breaking  on  such  papers,  is  to  hold  a  light  under 
the  web,  between  the  under-coucher  and  the  wet-felt 
roll,  so  that  he  may  make  sure  if  the  creases  are  there. 
If  the  wire  is  causing  them,  they  will  seem  like  a  small 
black  streak  running  a  little  way  in  from  the  edge. 
Tightening  up  the  wire  a  few  turns,  and  putting  more 
weight  on  the  coucher,  will  have  the  effect  of  curing 
them. 

When  the  coucher  cover  becomes  worn  on  the  edges 
much  trouble  and  worry  are  often  caused  by  the  paper, 
instead  of  couching  properly,  adhering  to  the  jacket, 
and,  if  not  running  up  the  roll  altogether,  going  far 
enough  up  to  cause  the  edge  to  crack  and  the  web 
to  crease  going  under  the  press-roll. 

This  may  be  greatly  helped  by  easing  the  weights 
on  the  coucher  and  raising  the  guard-board  a  little. 
The  guard-board  must  not  be  lifted  much,  just  enough 
to  keep  the  cover  moistened  with  water,  so  that  the 
suction  on  the  paper  may  be  lessened.  Slackening 
the  wire  draw  will  also  help  it,  by  allowing  the  web 
to  go  farther  down  the  wire,  and  thus  the  risk  of  its 
adhering  to  the  coucher  is  not  so  great.  By  fixing  a 
small  jet  of  water  so  that  it  will  play  on  the  edge 


DANDY   ROLLS.  115 

of  the  coucher,  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  paper 
just  before  it  passes  under  the  guard-board,  the  edge 
can  be  kept  much  cleaner,  which  also  lessens  the 
liability  of  the  web  to  adhere  to  it. 

Dandy  rolls  are  usually  made  half  an  inch  less  in 
circumference  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  more  in 
breadth  between  each  name,  to  ensure  that  the  sheet 
will  cut  to  the  size  after  the  shrinkage  and  expansion 
caused  when  the  paper  is  in  contact  with  the  hot 
cylinders  and  on  the  driers.  Sometimes  dandy  rolls 
are  wanted  to  cut  above  their  given  size,  as  when,  for 
instance,  a  sheet  17  x  27  in.  is  to  be  made  with  the 
foolscap  roll  which  cuts  13 J  x  i6J  in.  In  order  to 
bring  the  name  up  to  the  size  it  will  have  to  be 
stretched  half  an  inch. 

With  long  stuff,  which  stretches  easily,  this  is,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  a  matter  of  no  great  difficulty ; 
but  when  fine  stuff  is  being  worked  it  is  sometimes 
quite  impossible  to  obtain  the  size  without  unduly 
stretching  the  sheet.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  in 
order  to  bring  up  the  size,  in  such  a  case,  is  to  hang 
the  dandy  as  much  as  possible,  and  so  make  it  revolve 
more  slowly ;  then  the  cloth  should  be  let  down  on  the 
roll,  as  much  as  can  be  risked  without  retarding  it  in 
such  a  way  as  to  cause  it  to  streak  the  paper. 

The  wire  should  be  slowered  so  as  to  tighten  the 
web  between  the  under-coucher  and  the  wet-felt.  The 
second  press  should  be  driven  a  little  harder  by  taking 
off  a  piece  of  the  packing  from  the  driven  pulley,  or, 


Il6  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

if  there  be  none  on,  by  putting  a  small  piece  on  the 
driver,  and  the  draw  from  the  second  press  to  the 
cylinders  tightened  up  in  the  same  manner. 

It  is  better  always  to  take  off  than  put  on  packing, 
unless  the  belts  are  very  slack  and  inclined  to  slip;  as 
in  this  way  there  is  less  chance  of  the  packing  accumu- 
lating and  stretching  the  belts,  besides  causing  the 
draws  to  work  with  an  irregular  jerky  motion,  which 
is  very  likely  to  crack  the  web  at  some  time  when  they 
are  tighter  than  usual.  Even  when  the  size  is  up  to 
the  measurement,  without  any  undue  straining  of  the 
web,  the  distance  between  the  names  must  be  measured 
frequently,  especially  if  the  nature  of  the  stuff  is  being 
altered. 

A  fine  engine  will  draw  in  the  sheet  as  much  as 
one-eighth,  and  sometimes  three-sixteenths,  of  an  inch, 
while  longer  stuff  will  cause  it  to  expand  in  the  same 
proportion.  Not  infrequently,  when  working  a  broad 
deckle,  the  distance  between  the  middle  names, 
measuring  across  the  wire,  will  be  found  to  be  less 
than  that  between  those  in  the  side  sheets,  though 
the  usual  three-quarters  of  an  inch  has  been  allowed 
when  putting  the  names  on  the  dandy. 

This  is  especially  liable  to  occur  on  a  broad  machine, 
and  is  due  to  the  couch-roll  and  press-roll  yielding  in 
the  middle  when  put  down  hard  at  the  edges.  The 
middle  sheets  are  thus  damper  when  they  come  in 
contact  with  the  hot  cylinders,  and  the  suddenness  of 
the  reaction  makes  them  shrink  more  than  the  side 


DANDY  ROLLS.  117 

sheets,  which  are  much  drier  and  less  affected  by  the 
heat.  The  patent  anti-deflection  press-rolls,  with  which 
some  of  the  most  recently  built  machines  are  fitted,  are 
said  to  completely  prevent  this  unequal  pressure. 

Dandies  for  loft-dried  papers  should  have  one-eighth 
more  than  the  usual  three-quarters  of  an  inch  allowed 
between  the  names,  owing  to  the  shrinkage  while 
hanging  in  the  drying  loft.  Dandies  for  grass  papers 
should  not  have  more  than  half  to  five-eighths  of  an 
inch  allowed,  as  grass  shrinks  less  than  rags. 

When  setting  a  lined  dandy  it  must  be  placed 
perfectly  parallel,  so  that  the  lines  come  exactly  on  the 
top  of  each  other  when  the  sheets  are  folded.  To 
ensure  that  it  is  parallel  it  should  be  measured,  after 
having  been  placed  in  the  brackets,  either  from  the 
couch-roll  or  the  deckle  straps  on  each  side.  The 
simplest  way  in  which  to  determine  whether  a  named 
laid  dandy  is  placed  so  as  to  have  the  names  equi- 
distant from  the  edges  is  to  count  the  number  of  bars 
from  the  centre  of  each  name  to  the  deckle  edge  on 
each  side. 

The  same  holds  good  when  the  water-mark  consists 
of  a  name  and  a  device  on  each  sheet.  Should  the 
name  extend  over  an  odd  number  of  spaces,  such  as 
five  or  seven,  while  the  device  occupies  an  even 
number,  such  as  four,  the  space  between  the  middle 
bar  of  the  name  will  require  to  be  taken  as  the  centre, 
while  the  centre  of  the  device  will  consist  of  the  middle 
bar. 


Il8  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

When  setting  a  named  wove  dandy,  the  water-marks 
on  which  are  placed  as  on  a  laid  roll,  namely,  across 
instead  of  round  the  roll,  as  is  usual  with  the  wove 
dandy,  the  breadth  of  the  names  will  have  to  be 
measured,  and,  from  the  points  thus  fixed  as  centres, 
the  breadth  outwards  to  the  deckle  edge  on  each  side 
made  to  agree.  Named  wove  dandies  on  which  the 
water-marks  are  placed  round,  instead  of  across,  should 
be  measured  in  the  same  way. 

When  the  names  are  placed  so  that  one  side  of  the 
sheet  will  be  blank,  while  the  water-mark  occupies 
the  other,  a  piece  of  the  web,  the  full  breadth, 
should  be  taken  off  whenever  the  paper  has  reached 
the  reel,  and  after  allowing  for  pairing  it  should  be 
marked  off  with  a  pencil,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  sheet. 

When  this  has  been  done  it  should  be  again  divided 
into  half  or  quarter  sheets,  and  then  a  glance  at  the 
sheet  held  against  the  light  will  show  if  the  names  are 
right,  and  if  not,  in  what  direction  they  will  require 
to  be  altered.  A  few  years  ago  Brown's  patent  laid 
dandy,  which  possesses  several  advantages  over  the 
ordinary  laid  roll,  was  introduced. 

This  dandy  may  be  described  as  a  wove  roll  round 
which  the  laid  lines  are  fixed,  while  the  bars,  instead 
of  running  round,  as  is  the  case  with  the  ordinary 
form,  are  placed  along  its  length.  One  advantage  in 
using  this  roll  is  that  on  6o-in.  machines  large  and 
medium  post  can  be  made  three  times  i6£  in.  and 


BROWN'S   PATENT  DANDY  ROLL.  119 

17^  in.  respectively,  instead  of  twice  2o|  in.  and  22\  in., 
as  is  the  case  with  the  common  laid  roll. 

When  large  orders  of  these  sizes  are  made  a  con- 
siderable increase  in  the  output  can  thus  be  effected. 
It  is  well  known  that  less  colour  is  required  to  give 
the  same  shade  on  wove  papers  than  on  laid,  the 
reason  being  that  the  close  pressure  of  the  wove  dandy 
brings  the  finest  of  the  fibres  to  the  surface ;  and  thus, 
by  making  the  surface  smoother  and  more  compact, 
the  colour  is  much  better  brought  out.  Owing  to  the 
close  wove  cover  underlying  the  laid  lines  on  Brown's 
dandy,  the  same  even  pressure  is  given  to  the  surface, 
with  the  result  that  less  colour  is  necessary,  and  in 
addition  the  sheet  is  much  clearer. 

In  the  making  of  high-coloured  papers,  for  which 
20  or  30  Ibs.  of  expensive  colouring  matters  require  to 
be  used,  this  saving  is  not  to  be  underrated.  Though 
a  large  amount  of  water  is  used  with  it,  it  will  not 
"  lift " ;  at  least  the  tendency  is  so  small  that  it  may 
be  said  not  to  exist,  as  it  is  only  when  there  is  an 
excessive  amount  of  water  before  it  that  it  shows  any 
signs  of  lifting. 

Another  great  advantage  is  that  it  does  not  "  bell " 
when  driving  hard.  It  has,  however,  one  very  serious 
drawback  by  reason  of  which  its  adoption  has  been 
much  restricted.  Owing  to  its  weight,  as  at  present 
made,  the  laid  lines  are  very  liable  to  leave  their 
impression  on  the  under  side,  making  it  rough. 

In   order  to   avoid   this,  it  must   be   hung  on    the 


120  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

brackets  as  much  as  possible,  and  a  large  amount  of 
water  brought  forward.  If,  instead  of  the  ordinary 
form  of  wove  roll,  the  improved  skeleton  form  were 
used  to  support  the  laid  lines,  the  roll  when  finished 
would  be  much  lighter,  and  thus  the  danger  of  the 
impression  showing  on  the  underside  would  be  much 
lessened. 

To  prevent  "  blowing,"  the  felt-roll  immediately  in 
front  of  the  press-roll  should  be  raised  a  few  inches 
above  the  level  of  the  under  press-roll.  When  making 
thin  papers,  the  resistance  of  the  air  between  the 
web  and  the  felt  often  causes  blowing,  even  when  the 
draw  between  the  wire  and  the  felt  is  as  tight  as  it 
can  be  run  without  cracking  the  edges.  In  such  a 
case  the  press-roll  must  be  put  hard  down,  the  wet 
felt  tightened  up,  so  that  the  warp  may  be  opened  out 
and  allow  the  air  to  escape  and  the  seam  kept  square. 

When  the  seam  of  the  felt  is  off  the  square  the  warp 
lies  at  the  same  angle  as  the  seam,  and  thus  by  closing 
the  pores  retards  the  escape  of  the  air.  A  very  simple 
and  effectual  remedy  is  to  run  the  paper  over  a  small 
tube-roll,  placed  just  in  front  of  the  press-roll  about 
an  inch  above  the  wet-felt.  If  the  edges  are  uneven 
the  frayed  stuff  adheres  to  this  roll,  and  has  to  be 
taken  off  frequently,  or  it  will  crack  and  stretch  the 
edge  of  the  web. 

Another  plan  is  to  run  a  small  felt-covered  tube-roll 
on  the  top  of  the  paper  as  it  passes  on  to  the  first 
felt-roll;  but  when  making  named  papers  the  name  is 


WET-   AND   DRY-FELTS.  12 1 

liable  to  become  stretched  unequally  owing  to  the 
irregular  speed  of  this  roll.  By  placing  a  small  pump- 
box,  connected  with  the  vacuum  pumps,  under  the  wet- 
felt  close  up  to  the  under  press-roll,  the  suction  of  the 
pumps  will  draw  all  the  air  through  the  felt,  and  thus 
completely  cure  blowing.  Putting  on  the  felt  with  the 
pile  lying  the  wrong  way  will  also  tend  to  keep  it 
away,  owing  to  the  pores  being  kept  more  open,  thus 
allowing  the  air  to  escape  more  readily. 

When  running  a  broad  deckle  the  wet-felt  should  be 
kept  tight,  as  in  this  way  the  edges  are  opened  and 
allow  the  water  to  be  better  pressed  out,  and  thus 
there  is  less  danger  of  the  web  sticking  to  the  press- 
roll.  To  square  the  seam  either  of  wet  or  dry  felts, 
the  side  that  is  first  must  be  tightened  up.  The  same 
rule  applies  to  the  wire,  and  in  each  case  care  must 
be  taken  to  check  the  run,  as  both  wires  and  felts  will 
incline  to  run  from  the  side  which  has  been  tightened  up. 

There  is  great  diversity  of  opinion  among  machine- 
men  as  to  which  side  a  dry-felt  will  run  to  when 
tightened  up.  Some  hold  that  it  will  run  to  the  slack 
side;  others  that  it  will  run  to  the  tight  side.  The 
direction  in  which  a  dry-felt  will  run  depends  on  which 
side  of  the  cylinder  it  has  been  tightened  up. 

To  take  the  instance  of  a  single  cylinder  felt  sup- 
ported, say,  on  five  rolls.  Should  the  top  roll  be 
tightened  up  at  one  side  the  felt  will  invariably  run 
to  the  other,  and  if  the  seam  was  straight  before 
tightening  it  will  forge  ahead  at  the  slack  side. 


122  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

Suppose  that  the  foreside  top  roll  has  been  tightened 
up  in  order  to  square  the  seam,  which  has  gone  so 
much  ahead  in  front  as  to  threaten  to  run  the  felt  into 
a  crease,  and  that  the  felt  is  travelling  back  so  quickly 
as  to  be  in  danger  of  turning  over  and  bursting  at  the 
backside  edge,  though  the  guide-roll  has  been  changed 
as  much  as  possible  to  bring  it  forward,  raising  the 
backside  top  roll  would  set  it  forward  again,  but  would 
not  put  away  the  crease,  which  is  the  greatest  trouble. 

If,  however,  the  foreside  roll,  round  which  the  felt 
turns  as  it  leaves  the  cylinder  to  go  up  over  the  top 
roll,  be  lowered  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  more  if 
need  be,  the  seam  will  at  once  begin  to  come  square, 
and  the  felt  will  come  forward,  thus  running  to  the 
tight  side. 

Should  the  roll  round  which  the  felt  runs  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  cylinder  be  lowered,  the  felt  will 
run  to  the  backside,  thus  proving  that  a  dry-felt 
will  run  to  the  tight  side  when  tightened  at  the  side 
at  which  it  leaves  the  cylinder,  and  to  the  slack  side 
when  tightened  at  the  side  at  which  it  comes  in  contact 
with  it. 

The  seam  should  always  be  squared  up  after  start- 
ing, and  carefully  watched  so  that  it  may  not  run 
ahead  at  either  side ;  otherwise  the  felt  will  become 
unequally  stretched,  and  give  much  trouble  by  moving 
about  when  it  gets  old  and  worn  out. 

The  rubbers  with  which  most  press-rolls  are  now 
fitted  are  a  great  boon  in  saving  the  felt  from  being 


FIRST   AND   SECOND   PRESS-ROLLS.  123 

cut,  should  any  hard  substance  pass  between  the  rolls 
when  the  press  is  firm  down.  No  oil  should  ever  be 
poured  down  the  screw,  as  it  would  tend  to  rot  the 
rubber ;  and  besides,  there  is  no  need  for  doing  so,  as 
the  oil  on  the  bottom  side  is  quite  sufficient  to  keep 
it  working  smoothly,  as  from  time  to  time  it  passes 
through  the  nut  which  works  against  the  rubber  when 
the  roll  is  raised  for  turning  or  putting  on  a  wet-felt. 

When  couching  and  pressing  lightly  it  sometimes 
happens  that  the  pile  on  the  wet-felt  becomes  clogged 
up  with  the  soft  stuff,  and  the  paper  adhering  to  it 
until  just  under  the  second  press  goes  up  in  a  crease. 
A  narrow  piece  of  wood — a  long  foot-rule  by  pre- 
ference— placed  between  the  paper  and  the  felt  just 
as  it  leaves  the  press-roll,  will,  by  separating  the  paper 
from  the  felt,  prevent  the  creasing  caused  in  this  way. 
The  foot-rule  should  be  fixed  on  to  the  frame  in  such 
a  way  as  to  be  clear  of  the  felt,  otherwise  it  will  gather 
wet  stuff  which,  passing  round  on  the  felt,  may  cause 
a  break  at  the  press-roll. 

It  is  the  practice  in  some  mills  to  press  very  lightly 
with  the  first  press  and  keep  the  second  press  hard 
down,  the  idea  being  to  have  as  little  felt  marking  on 
the  underside  as  possible,  and  also  by  taking  out  the 
wire  mark  with  the  pressure  applied  to  the  underside, 
to  improve  the  surface. 

With  this  method  of  working  the  second  press  felts 
have  to  be  frequently  changed,  owing  to  the  passage 
of  so  much  water  pressed  from  the  paper  clogging 


124  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

them  quickly.  A  dirty  second  press  felt  is  one  of  the 
most  frequent  causes  of  the  unevenness  in  drying, 
termed  "  cockling,"  as  the  paper  in  contact  with  the 
dirty  part  of  the  felt  is  much  more  damp  when  it  comes 
in  contact  with  the  cylinders,  and  thus  is  liable  to 
become  blistered  from  the  suddenness  of  the  drying. 

Keeping  the  dry-felts  tight  has  the  effect  of  prevent- 
ing cockling  by  pressing  the  paper  more  uniformly 
against  the  cylinders.  Whether  there  be  any  special 
need  to  have  the  paper  flat  or  not,  the  drying  should 
always  be  conducted  gradually,  the  heat  of  the 
cylinders  gradually  increasing  as  the  paper  nears  the 
dry  end.  With  thin  papers,  especially  those  made 
from  strong  linen  rags,  the  press  must  be  put  hard 
down,  and  the  heat  of  the  cylinders  so  regulated  as 
to  leave  the  paper  slightly  damp  when  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  last  two  or  three,  which  should  only 
be  sufficiently  hot  to  dry  without  causing  any  sudden 
contraction  of  the  web. 

Unless  the  seam  of  the  second  press  felt  be  per- 
fectly square  it  is  very  liable  to  crease ;  if  it  should 
do  so  the  side  which  is  last  should  be  lowered  down, 
as  by  doing  so  the  creasing  is  counteracted  more 
quickly  than  by  tightening  the  side  which  has  run 
ahead.  When  passing  the  second  press  the  draw 
from  the  first  press  to  the  cylinders  must  be  slackened, 
and  to  do  so  double  the  amount  of  packing  that  would 
be  necessary  to  slacken  the  same  strain  from  the 
second  press  to  the  cylinders  will  be  required. 


CHANGING    THE   SPEED.  125 

The  same  rule  holds  good  when  passing  the  smooth- 
ing rolls,  and  of  course  double  the  amount  has  to  be 
taken  off  when  putting  the  paper  through  again. 
Though,  as  a  rule,  when  changing  from  thick  to  thin 
papers  the  draws  will  require  to  be  tightened  up,  very 
little  packing  will  be  necessary  should  the  speed  be 
much  faster  than  that  at  which  the  thicker  paper  was 
made.  This  is  due  to  the  increased  momentum  given 
to  the  pulleys  owing  to  the  quickened  speed. 

When  making  thick  paper  at  a  speed  of  about  1 8  ft. 
per  minute,  the  belts  will  require  to  be  very  tight,  or 
they  will  slip,  owing  to  the  strain  of  driving,  unaided 
by  the  momentum  which  a  higher  speed  will  give.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  when  driving  at  a  slow  speed 
the  wire  will  run  to  one  side,  and  refuse  to  respond 
to  the  guide.  Should  this  threaten  to  damage  the 
wire,  the  speed  should  be  quickened  up,  as  by  so 
doing  the  wire  will  answer  the  guide  much  better. 

If  the  machine  be  fitted  with  the  improved  cone 
driving,  quickening  the  speed  is  a  very  simple  matter ; 
but  should  the  difference  thus  made  be  insufficient, 
as  much  as  20  ft.  more  per  minute  can  be  obtained 
by  tightening  up  the  thumb-screw  attached  to  the 
governor  of  the  engine. 

This  increase  of  the  speed  generally  has  the  effect 
of  bringing  the  wire  back,  but  should  it  prove  inef- 
fectual the  only  plan  left  is  to  shut  down,  and,  having 
taken  off  the  couch-roll  and  slackened  the  wire  a  little, 
to  draw  it  back  into  its  right  position. 


126  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

It  is  assumed  that  everything  has  been  already  done, 
so  far  as  altering  and  tightening  the  wire  at  the  side  to 
which  it  is  running  can  be  made  to  effect  any  change 
in  its  course.  When  making  webs,  such  as  those  for 
use  in  the  Morse  telegraph  machine,  difficulty  is  often 
experienced  in  getting  them  to  bulk  equally.  This 
unequal  bulk  may  be  caused  by  a  want  of  uniformity 
in  the  spread  on  the  wire,  or  a  difference  in  the 
pressure  of  the  couch  or  press-rolls.  Badly  ground 
calender  rolls  will  also  cause  inequality  both  of  surface 
and  of  bujk. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  remembered  that, 
when  paper  is  passing  through  the  calender  rolls,  the 
drier  it  leaves  the  press-roll  the  better  will  it  bulk. 
Should  the  pressure  on  the  rolls  be  very  light,  or 
should  the  paper  be  finished  rough,  the  less  pressure 
put  on  the  press-roll  the  bulk  will  be  better. 

Each  machine  has,  owing  to  differences  in  fitting  up 
or  other  causes  which  exert  an  influence  on  the 
pressure  given  to  the  paper,  its  own  peculiarities. 
Sometimes  a  softness  on  the  edge  may  be  filled  up 
by  hanging  or  putting  down  the  second  press-roll, 
according  as  the  paper  is  being  glazed  or  not.  When 
the  stuff  is  free,  and  thus  spreading  and  filling  up  the 
edges  well,  the  webs  will  be  found  to  bulk  more 
uniformly. 

Should  the  paper  begin  to  break  between  the 
calender  rolls  from  any  unaccountable  cause,  the  first 
thing  the  machine-nam  ought  to  do,  after  having 


BREAKING  AT  THE  CALENDERS.  ^7 

satisfied  himself  that  it  is  not  too  dry,  is  to  see  that 
none  of  the  draws  are  too  tight,  especially  the  draw 
from  the  first  to  the  second  press-rolls.  Should  this 
draw  be  too  tight,  the  web  will  be  pulled  and  stretched 
at  the  edges,  and  though  no  cracks  may  be  visible,  the 
contraction,  and  consequent  strain,  as  the  paper  is 
dried,  will  cause  the  weakened  edge  to  break  as  the 
draws  become  tightened  towards  the  dry  end. 

Should  the  draws  be  all  right  and  the  breaking 
continue,  the  edges  should  be  closely  watched  for  a 
turn  of  the  wire,  to  see  that  no  dirt  has  become  fixed 
in  the  meshes,  and  by  hindering  the  passage  of  the 
water  and  the  suction  of  the  pumps  is  causing  a  weak 
spot  near  the  edge  of  the  web.  A  dirty  or  raised  seam 
will  cause  breaking  both  at  the  press-roll  and  the 
calenders.  A  little  vitriol  poured  on  the  dirty  part  will 
generally  clean  it;  but  should  the  dirt  still  remain, 
blowing  it  with  a  jet  of  steam  will  take  it  out. 

Not  unfrequently  dirty  spots,  more  than  usually 
difficult  to  get  rid  of,  will  be  noticed  in  the  wire  after 
the  mechanics  or  joiners  have  been  fitting  up  new 
boxes  about  the  machine.  These  are  generally  caused 
by  small  pieces  of  white  lead,  which  have  been  left 
lying  about  the  boxes,  coming  away  with  the  stuff  and 
being  pressed  into  the  meshes  by  the  couch-roll. 

When  the  trouble  is  caused  by  a  raised  seam,  the 
"stent"-roll  should  be  put  down  a  few  turns.  The 
wet-felt  should  next  be  examined,  to  see  that  no  dried 
stuff  or  other  hard  substance  has  adhered  to  it  near 


128  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

the  edge  of  the  web.  Should  any  such  hard  material 
be  coming  between  the  paper  and  the  felt  as  it  passes 
under  the  press-roll,  cracks,  only  perceptible  as  small 
dark  marks,  will  be  made.  If  this  is  the  cause  of 
breaking,  the  marks  will  be  noticed  by  examining  the 
end  of  the  web  just  where  it  has  been  severed. 

Breaking  at  the  calenders  may  also  be  caused 
through  having  the  draws  too  slack,  thus  causing  the 
paper  to  fold  over  at  the  edge  when  entering  the  press- 
rolls.  Should  the  cylinder  draws  be  too  slack,  espe- 
cially near  the  wet  end,  the  felts,  if  they  are  tight,  will 
take  up  the  slack,  and  in  doing  so  cause  very  minute 
folds  on  the  edge,  which,  through  being  damp  when 
calendered,  will  make  a  weak  spot  on  the  edge  of 
the  web. 

When  making  thin  papers  at  a  quick  speed,  the 
press-roll  should  be  kept  well  down,  while  the  steam 
on  the  first  cylinders  should  be  regulated  so  as  to  dry 
very  gradually.  By  keeping  the  press-roll  firmly 
down,  the  paper  is  made  more  dry,  and  thus  more 
easily  handled  when  leading  it  over  the  machine. 

When  starting  very  heavy  papers,  at  a  slow  speed, 
the  small  plug  just  behind  the  apron- board  should  be 
drawn  out,  so  that  the  flooding,  so  liable  when  starting 
such  papers,  may  be  prevented.  Sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  change  from  one  revolving  strainer  to 
another  without  shutting,  and  the  strainer  to  be  started 
is  generally  furnished  from  the  chest  by  means  of 
pails. 


CHANGING  STRAINERS.  I2g 

If  the  strainers  are  in  such  a  position  that  the  flow 
of  the  stuff  can  be  made  to  supply  both  of  the  strainers, 
a  much  easier  and  better  plan  is  to  put  on  an  inch  or  so 
more  stuff  at  the  stuff-cock,  and  when  the  increase  has 
had  time  to  travel  round  the  sand-trap  to  the  strainers, 
to  allow  a  little  stuff  to  run  into  the  strainer  it  is 
desired  to  start,  at  the  same  time  running  water  into 
the  strainer  being  worked,  to  make  up  for  what  is 
passing  into  the  other  with  the  stuff. 

While  the  strainer  is  filling  up,  the  weight  can  be 
regulated  by  the  amount  of  stuff  allowed  to  flow  into 
it,  and  a  few  minutes  before  it  is  full  the  stuff-cock 
should  be  put  back  to  where  it  was  before,  that  is,  if 
no  change  is  to  be  made  in  the  weight.  When  full,  all 
that  is  required  is  to  open  the  sluice  connecting  it  with 
the  wire,  at  the  same  time  shutting  off  the  strainer  that 
has  been  in  use. 

If  a  jog  strainer,  or  "knotter,"  as  it  is  often  called, 
be  worked  in  connection  with  the  strainer,  the  cocks 
will  have  to  be  reversed  so  as  to  allow  the  stuff  from 
the  strainer  just  started  to  pass  through,  when  the 
other  cock  has  been  shut. 

Though  each  machine-man  has  his  own  method  of 
working  when  putting  on  a  wire,  the  following  direc- 
tions will  give  an  idea  of  how  it  should  be  gone  about. 
Before  making  any  preparations  to  cut  off  the  old  wire, 
the  machine-man  should  see  that  all  the  pins  which 
support  the  carrying-rolls  in  their  brasses  are  properly 
secured,  otherwise  one  or  other  of  the  rolls  may  fall 

9 


130  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

when  the  support  of  the  wire  is  taken  from  under 
them. 

Having  seen  that  everything  is  right,  the  wire 
should  be  cut  on  the  edge,  in  two  places,  about  an 
inch  apart,  close  to  the  coucher,  and  the  clutch  put  in 
for  a  second  or  two  until  the  cut  edge  appears  just  on 
the  under  coucher.  A  quick  tear  will  carry  the  rent 
right  across  to  the  back  side,  and  the  bottom  side  of 
the  wire  will  fall  down. 

The  clutch  should  then  be  put  in  and  struck  out 
again  until  the  wire  has  been  rolled  up  sufficiently  to 
lie  between  the  under  coucher  and  the  wet-felt  roll, 
when  the  wet-felt  should  be  started,  and  then  the  wire 
clutch  put  in  until  all  the  wire  has  been  wound  up  by 
the  action  of  the  two  rolls.  The  wire  clutch  should 
then  be  struck  out,  and  also  the  wet-felt.  The  engine 
should  then  be  shut  down  until  ready  to  start  again. 

While  the  machine-man  is  taking  off  the  slices  and 
folding  back  the  apron,  some  of  the  other  hands  should 
lift  off  the  couch-roll  on  to  a  broad  plank  placed  across 
the  wet-felt  frame  just  in  front  of  the  press-roll,  care 
being  taken  not  to  let  it  come  sharply  against  the  small 
bracket  to  which  the  arm  for  moving  the  doctor  is 
attached. 

The  guide-roll  should  then  be  lifted  out  and  placed 
in  some  place  where  there  will  be  no  danger  of  its 
being  kicked  against  or  marked  in  any  way.  While 
this  is  being  done  the  deckle  cones  may  be  slacked 
and  then  taken  out,  and  after  the  nuts  fixing  the  deckles 


PUTTING  ON  A   WIRE.  131 

to  the  frame  have  been  taken  off  and  screwed  on  to  the 
top  end  of  the  screw  to  avoid  being  lost,  the  deckles 
should  be  lifted. 

Some  of  the  hands  should  then  lower  the  wash-roll 
and  take  out  the  pump  boxes,  while  others  are  washing 
the  tube-rolls  prior  to  lifting  them  out.  When  taking 
out  the  tube-rolls  great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
putting  them  out  of  their  order,  and,  if  possible,  the 
same  one  should  always  take  charge  of  this,  so  that  the 
risk  of  confusion  may  be  lessened. 

The  tube-rolls  all  out,  the  save-all  should  be  lifted  up 
against  the  frame  at  one  side,  so  as  to  make  the  water 
and  china  clay  or  other  loading  material  which  has 
adhered  to  it  run  off  quickly  when  washing,  before 
lifting  it  out.  After  the  save-all  and  the  supports  are 
taken  out,  the  carrying-rolls  should  be  let  down,  and 
while  the  breast-roll  is  being  taken  out  two  of  the 
hands  should  go  for  the  new  wire,  so  that  no  time  may 
be  taken  up  waiting  for  it  after  everything  is  ready. 

Meanwhile  the  assistant  should  see  that  the  pump 
boxes  have  been  washed,  ready  for  the  millwright  who 
is  to  plane  them,  that  they  may  be  finished  in  time  to 
be  put  in  after  the  save-all  and  tube-rolls  have  been  put 
in.  The  new  wire  having  been  put  carefully  on  to  the 
under  coucher  should  be  unrolled  as  it  is  taken  up  to 
the  breast-roll,  which  is  then  put  in,  care  being  taken 
to  leave  out  none  of  the  keys  which  may  have 
been  fixed  between  the  breast-roll  brasses  and  the 
bracket. 


132  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

The  brasses  need  not  be  tightened  up  until  the 
coucher  has  been  put  on  and  the  wire  ready  to  be 
squared  off.  The  supports  for  the  save-all  having 
been  put  in,  the  save-all  is  placed  in  position,  and  then 
the  tube-rolls,  one  by  one,  placed  in  the  brasses.  If 
care  has  been  exercised  in  lifting  them  out  in  their 
proper  order,  the  numbers  on  the  frame  and  those  on 
the  rolls  should  correspond  without  any  changing  and 
replacing. 

Care  should  also  be  taken  to  turn  all  the  brasses 
with  the  same  sides  to  the  front,  so  that  the  wire  will 
lie  perfectly  square.  The  pump  boxes  should  next  be 
put  in  and  the  wash-roll  lifted  into  its  place,  then  the 
carrying-rolls  and  guide-roll  placed  in  position,  and 
the  wire  turned  round  by  the  hand,  and  any  dirt  that 
may  have  become  attached  to  it  washed  off  with  the 
water  jet. 

This  done,  the  stent-roll  should  be  held,  supported 
by  one  at  each  side,  while  the  coucher  is  put  on,  and 
while  the  machine-man  is  getting  the  apron  folded  down 
the  deckles  should  be  lowered,  and  then  the  knees  and 
slices  fixed  on.  The  deckle  cones  are  then  lifted  into 
their  place,  the  strap  having  been  put  on  the  outside  of 
the  supports  so  as  to  be  right  when  they  are  in. 

Meanwhile  the  breast-roll  brasses  should  be 
tightened  up,  the  wire  squared  off,  and  the  stent-roll 
put  down  with  little  more  than  its  own  weight.  The 
breast-roll  guard  stick  and  the  stick  which  keeps  it  in 
position  should  then  be  put  in,  the  guide  bar  put  across 


STARTING  A  NEW  WIRE.  133 

and  attached  to  the  guide,  the  wash-roll  doctor,  and 
wash-pipe  fitted  up,  and  the  save-all  spout  placed  in 
position  ready  for  a  start.  The  water  pipe  for  the 
breast  guard  stick  should  also  be  put  on  so  that  it  may 
not  be  forgotten,  and  the  breast-roll  started  dry. 

When  starting  a  new  wire  the  wheels  of  the  guide, 
which  are  acted  on  by  the  Strieker  attached  to  the 
journal  of  the  guide-roll,  should  be  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  small  bars  on  which  they  slide.  When  in  this 
position  the  arm  to  which  they  are  attached,  and  also 
the  one  which  moves  on  the  pivot  fixed  on  the  frame, 
will  be  parallel  to  the  wire,  and  thus  the  danger  that 
the  wire  may  run  to  the  side  much  lessened. 

Should  the  position  of  the  spades  on  the  guide-bar 
not  allow  of  this,  they  should  be  altered  so  as  to  bring 
the  arms  parallel.  Even  when  these  precautions  are 
taken  the  wire  will  sometimes  run  to  the  side,  and 
refuse  to  respond  to  the  action  of  the  guide,  thus 
moving  the  arms,  and  the  wheels  actuated  by  them,  at 
an  angle  to  the  frame. 

When  checked  by  the  hand  the  wire  may  steady 
itself  in  this  position  for  some  time,  but  so  long  as  the 
wheels  are  so  much  off  the  square  it  cannot  be  trusted 
to  remain  steady,  as  it  is  sure  eventually  to  yield  to  the 
guide,  and  when  it  does  so  it  will  travel  back,  or 
forward,  as  the  case  may  be,  with  such  rapidity,  owing 
to  the  guide-roll  being  so  much  turned  in  the  direction 
to  which  it  is  now  running,  that  unless  it  is  im- 
mediately checked  by  the  hand  it  will,  in  all  proba- 


134  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

bility,  run  off  to  the  side  and  become  jammed  against 
the  frame- 

Every  machine-man  knows  the  trouble  and  anxiety 
occasioned  by  the  uncertainty  as  to  when  such  a  wire 
may  run  to  the  side,  to  which  he  knows  it  must  come 
before  it  can  be  trusted  to  regulate  itself.  A  good 
plan  in  such  a  case  is  to  stop  the  suction  of  the 
pumps,  either  by  shutting  the  cock  or  by  drawing  out 
the  end  of  the  box,  as  immediately  the  strain  of  the 
suction  is  removed  the  wire  will  answer  to  the  guide 
and  run  to  the  side  to  which  it  is  checked. 

As  the  machine-man  is  at  hand  expecting  the  "  run," 
no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  checking  it  in  time  to 
prevent  it  being  damaged.  Such  a  proceeding  means 
a  break,  but  compared  with  the  constant  watchfulness 
and  the  liability  of  the  wire  to  be  jammed  should  the 
run  take  place  before  the  machine-man  can  get  it 
checked,  that  is  a  very  small  matter. 

Whenever  the  wire  has  fairly  started  to  run  back, 
the  pump  should  again  be  put  into  action,  that  the 
speed  with  which  the  wire  is  travelling  may  be 
lessened.  The  spades  on  the  guide-bar  should  not  be 
pressed  hard  against  the  edges  of  the  wire ;  but  should 
be  clear  about  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  on  each  side,  so 
as  to  allow  the  wire  to  steady  itself  without  the 
continual  action  of  the  guide,  if  possible. 

Should  the  seam  of  the  wire  be  raised  up,  it  very 
often  causes  bells  to  appear  all  along  its  length.  This 
is  owing  to  the  air  passing  round  the  breast-roll 


PUTTING  ON  A   COUCHER  JACKET.  135 

beneath  the  raised  seam,  and  in  its  escape  from  under 
the  apron  carrying  with  it  the  frothy  sizing  compounds 
left  in  the  meshes  of  the  wire  by  the  passage  of  the 
backwater. 

That  it  is  these  frothy  matters  which  cause  the 
bells,  and  not  the  presence  of  the  air  alone,  is  readily 
seen  when  a  shower  is  placed  so  as  to  play  on  the 
wire  just  before  it  goes  up  under  the  breast-roll. 
Immediately  the  water  is  turned  on,  the  bells  will 
disappear,  owing  to  the  froth  having  been  washed  out 
of  the  meshes.  The  air  is  still  passing  round  the 
breast-roll ;  but  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  froth  no 
bells  are  made  when  it  escapes  through  the  stuff,  as  the 
seam  passes  from  under  the  apron. 

Before  proceeding  to  draw  on  a  new  coucher  jacket, 
which  looks  like  being  tight,  the  roll  should  have  one 
or  two  pailfuls  of  hot  water  thrown  over  it,  and  then 
should  be  thoroughly  dried.  The  heat  of  the  water  has 
the  effect  of  causing  the  roll,  if  it  be  an  ordinary 
wooden  one,  to  shrink,  thus  making  the  jacket  slide  on 
more  easily.  When  starting  a  new  cover,  on  fine  stuff, 
which  is  always  most  liable  to  adhere  to  the  pile,  as 
little  weight  should  be  worked  on  the  roll  as  possible, 
and  the  guard-board  should  be  put  firmly  down. 

Before  starting,  one  or  two  handbowls  of  china, 
clay  should  be  poured  on  the  cover  as  the  roll  is 
running  dry,  so  that  the  pile  may  be  flattened  down, 
and  the  cover  made  more  hard,  through  the  closing 
of  the  pores  by  the  clay. 


136  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

When  starting  the  paper  no  water  should  be  run 
on  the  roll,  though  a  handbowl  of  clay  may  be 
poured  on  for  some  time,  and  when  it  is  turned  on 
the  pipe  should  be  turned  so  that  the  water  will  run 
down  the  front  of  the  guard-board  on  to  the  cover, 
as  if  the  jets  play  directly  on  the  cover  the  pile  will 
be  raised,  and  the  liability  to  picking  much  increased. 
Should  the  paper  threaten  to  lift  on  the  roll,  a  little 
turpentine  or  engine  size  poured  on  the  cover  will 
cause  it  to  go  down. 

Much  trouble  is  often  caused,  when  making  coloured 
papers,  especially  blues,  with  a  new  couch-cover, 
as  the  fine  fibres  which  adhere  to  the  pile  cause 
a  white  mark  to  appear  on  the  surface.  If  the  guard- 
board  be  passing  even  a  little  water,  it  will  cause 
the  cover  to  pick  up  the  stuff  just  when  it  runs  on 
to  the  web.  A  number  of  brushes  weighted  with 
lead,  in  order  to  keep  them  steady,  placed  on  the  roll 
just  in  front  of  the  guard-board,  will  keep  the  cover 
clean  and  prevent  the  marks  from  appearing  on  the 
sheet.  A  little  turpentine  is  a  very  useful  thing  to 
have  about  the  machine,  as  there  is  nothing  better 
for  cleaning  the  edges  of  the  couch-roll,  and  prevent- 
ing sticking  at  the  press-roll. 

When  the  machine  calenders  have  been  *'  sweating," 
and  are  difficult  to  start,  as  is  often  the  case  on  the 
Monday  morning,  one  or  two  handbowls  of  soda  lye 
(soda  ash)  should  be  poured  over  them  and  allowed  to 
become  dry,  when  they  will  usually  start  away  all  right. 


CHAPTER  X. 
ANIMAL  SIZING.— DRYING. 

Animal  Sizing, — Before  the  extraction  of  the  gelatine 
can  be  proceeded  with,  the  hides  or  horn  piths  must 
first  be  freed  from  the  lime  which  has  been  used 
to  preserve  them.  This  may  be  satisfactorily 
accomplished  by  allowing  them  .to  lie  covered  up 
with  cold  water  for  about  twenty-four  hours,  the 
water  being  changed  twice.  In  order  to  ensure  that 
all  the  lime  has  been  removed,  they  may  be  further 
washed  in  revolving  wire-covered  drums  for  about 
half  an  hour  before  being  put  into  the  heater. 

The  extraction  of  the  size  is  usually  conducted  in 
copper-lined  jacketed  heaters,  into  the  bottom  of  which 
a  wooden  frame  is  fitted  so  as  to  allow  the  size  to 
pass  through,  while  keeping  back  any  slime  that 
would  contaminate  it.  To  make  this  more  secure, 
an  openly  woven  cloth  is  spread  over  the  wooden 
frame.  After  the  heater  has  been  filled  and  the  heat 
brought  up  to  between  165°  to  170°  Fahr.,  the  charge 
should  stand  for  15  to  17  hours  before  being  drawn  off. 

137 


I38  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

Just  before  drawing  off  the  steam  should  be  turned 
on  for  a  little,  so  as  to  make  the  size  run  more  freely. 
When  all  the  strong  gelatine  has  been  run  to  the 
store  tanks,  the  hides  should  again  be  treated  with 
water  at  a  temperature  of  from  180°  to  190°  Fahr.,  and 
allowed  to  stand  as  with  the  first  drawing. 

The  third  infusion  may  be  heated  to  about  200°  Fahr., 
while  the  fourth,  if  there  be  a  fourth  taken  off,  may 
be  boiled  for  an  hour  or  so.  The  amount  of  water 
run  in  to  the  heaters  for  the  different  infusions  must 
be  regulated  by  the  strength  of  the  size  required. 
The  size  should  be  run  through  a  flannel  cloth  laid 
over  a  fine  wirecloth  sieve. 

The  infusions  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  run  off 
a  first  and  fourth  together,  and  a  second  and  third 
at  the  same  time;  but  this,  too,  depends  on  the 
strength  of  size  wanted.  About  2\  per  cent,  of  white 
soap  should  be  added  to  each  drawing,  and  thoroughly 
mixed  before  the  alum  is  put  in,  otherwise  the  size 
will  curd.  The  alum  added  equals  about  30  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  hides  or  piths  infused. 

The  alum  is  added  with  the  idea  of  preserving 
the  size,  and  the  soap  in  order  to  prevent  the  sparkling 
caused  by  the  alum,  and  to  improve  the  surface  when 
calendering.  As  the  alum  is  in  excess  the  soap  is 
decomposed,  with  the  result  that  the  fatty  oils  thus 
liberated  tend  to  enable  the  paper  to  take  on  a  better 
finish. 

In  the  bottom  of  the  chests  used  to  hold  the  size 


TUB  SIZING.  139 

a  lead-covered  steam-pipe  should  be  laid,  in  the  form 
of  a  coil,  so  that  the  size  may  be  heated,  and  thus 
made  to  run  more  easily  before  being  pumped  through 
the  pipes  to  the  sizing  tub.  If  the  chests  be  lead- 
lined,  the  inside  should  be  rubbed  with  lard,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  size  from  adhering  to  it. 

Some  sizing  tubs  are  fitted  so  as  to  carry  the 
paper  immersed  in  the  size  until  just  under  the  rolls, 
which  remove  the  excess  taken  up;  but  the  best 
results  are  obtained  when  the  web  is  raised  from  the 
size  just  after  passing  under  the  dipping-roll,  and 
exposed  to  the  air  in  its  passage  over  the  spared 
frame  or  the  carrying-rolls.  When  the  stuff  is  free, 
the  tub  has  to  be  replenished  more  often  than  when 
it  is  soft,  and  though  a  larger  amount  of  size  is  taken 
up,  the  paper  is  softer  to  handle  and  wets  much 
easier. 

This  is  owing  to  the  mussy  nature  of  the  fibres, 
which  from  being  cut  up  so  quickly  in  the  beater 
are  unable  to  retain  the  engine  size,  and  thus,  though 
more  absorbent,  and  more  permeated  by  the  gelatine, 
they  lack  the  firmness  to  support  the  size  coating 
in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  a  grippy  paper.  This 
is  especially  noticeable  if  steam  is  being  used  to  clear 
knots,  or  render  the  stuff  more  workable  on  the 
wire. 

When  working  the  Marshall  beater  the  sizer  rolls 
are  less  apt  to  "  peel "  than  if  the  stuff  is  prepared  in 
the  ordinary  form  of  beater.  This  proves  that  there 


140  PRACTICAL  PAPER  MAKING. 

is  less  powdery  stuff  made  in  the  passage  through 
the  perfecting  engine  than  when  the  stuff  is  reduced 
to  a  fine  state  by  the  repeated  action  of  the  roll. 

If  this  peeling  is  caused  by  the  use  of  steam,  as  is 
often  the  case  with  grass  papers,  a  little  extra  starch, 
added  either  to  the  stuff  in  the  chests  or  put  down 
with  the  next  engine,  will  help  to  counteract  the  soft- 
ness and  make  the  paper  less  apt  to  adhere  to  the 
rolls.  If  this  does  not  cure  it,  a  piece  of  wood  covered 
with  felt  should  be  pressed  against  the  top  roll  in  the 
same  way  as  the  guard-board  on  the  coucher. 

When  the  paper  is  not  run  through  the  second  press- 
rolls,  the  rough  underside  will  not  readily  take  up  the 
size,  and  much  trouble  from  streaks  on  the  underside 
is  often  caused  by  this  irregular  sizing.  This  can  be 
cured  by  fixing  a  narrow  piece  of  wood  against  the 
sides  of  the  tub,  so  that  it  will  be  beneath  the  level 
of  the  size  near  to  the  dipping-roll.  As  the  web  passes 
between  this  and  the  dipping-roll  the  rubbing  against 
the  underside  spreads  the  size  equally  over  it,  and  the 
streaking  at  once  disappears. 

To  prevent  the  froth  made  by  the  dipping-roll  from 
passing  round  and  being  carried  away  on  the  web, 
a  narrow  piece  of  felt,  or  even  a  piece  of  thick  twine, 
should  be  tied  to  the  sides  of  the  tub  so  as  to  press 
against  the  surface  of  the  dipping-roll  along  its  length. 

When  sizing  strong  rag  papers,  or,  in  fact,  any  thin 
papers  containing  rags,  the  top  roll  should  never  be 
raised  in  the  least,  because  when  raised  the  knots  and 


TUB  SIZING.  141 

strings  liable  to  be  carried  away  with  such  papers  are 
not  flattened,  and  in  further  raising  the  roll  allow  the 
size  to  pass  through  and  cause  sticking  when  running 
on  to  the  drier. 

On  thick  papers  made  from  fine  stuff,  hanging  the  top 
roll  a  little  often  saves  a  great  deal  of  labour  in  keeping 
it  free  from  the  powdery  stuff  which  is  so  apt  to 
adhere  to  it. 

For  thick  or  medium  weight  papers  made  from  hard 
stock  the  size  should  be  heated  a  little,  so  that  it 
may  penetrate  it  more  readily;  but  for  light  weights 
it  should  be  worked  with  as  little  heat  as  possible, 
as  being  so  thin  the  paper  is  soaked  more  readily,  and 
is  liable  to  become  so  softened  that  it  will  scarcely 
bear  its  own  weight  going  over  the  carrying-rolls. 

By  heating  the  size  a  poorer  quality  may  be  used, 
though  this  is  partly  equalised  by  the  increased  amount 
taken  up  by  the  paper.  When  paper  is  reeled  at  the 
sizer  and  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time  before  being 
dried,  it  will  have  a  much  harder  rattle  and  be  better 
sized. 

High-coloured  papers  are,  however,  very  liable  to 
fade  when  standing,  owing  to  the  action  of  the  alum 
contained  in  the  size.  The  edges  are  also  very  apt 
to  stick  together  and  tear,  through  the  size  having 
become  dry,  unless  they  are  washed  with  hot  water 
once  or  twice  while  standing.  The  drier  and  cooler 
the  web  is  when  it  enters  the  size  the  better  will  the 
sizing  be  accomplished. 


142  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

When  not  perfectly  dry  the  paper  has  a  soft,  mussy 
feeling  after  drying,  owing  to  its  having  taken  up  less 
size  through  being  moist  when  passing  through  the 
tub. 

Drying, — Notwithstanding  the  common  belief  that 
paper  dried  more  by  the  action  of  the  fans  than  by 
steam  heat  is  the  better  sized,  the  reverse  is  the  case. 
If  the  steam  be  checked  and  the  fans  driven  as  hard 
as  possible,  the  paper,  though  dry,  will  not  have  a 
hard  grippy  feel.  When  as  many  of  the  fans  as 
possible  are  stopped  and  the  steam  turned  on  full, 
the  result  will  be  a  strong  sized  paper  with  a  firm 
hard  rattle. 

This  would  seem  to  be  somewhat  at  variance  with 
the  undoubted  fact  that  loft-dried  papers  are  better 
sized  than  similar  papers  dried  on  the  drier,  but  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  results  obtained  by 
exposing  paper  to  the  action  of  dry  air  for  hours 
cannot  be  taken  as  supplying  a  theory  for  the  treat- 
ment of  papers  dried  in  scarcely  half  as  many  minutes. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  on  the  drier, 
the  fans  in  the  first  portion  should  not  be  driven  too 
hard,  while  the  steam  should  be  kept  up.  In  the 
latter  portion  the  speed  of  the  fans  should  be  increased 
and  the  steam  checked. 

When  drying  thin  paper  made  wholly  or  in  large 
proportion  from  linen  rags,  it  is  often  a  matter  of  great 
difficulty  to  get  it  to  run  flat.  If  the  drier  is  driven 


COCKLING.  143 

at  the  same  speed  as  the  machine  with  such  papers, 
the  "cockling,"  as  it  is  termed,  will  be  worse. 

When  thin  papers  enter  the  size  they  are  usually 
very  hot  and  dry,  consequently  the  fibres  have  become 
drawn  together;  but  before  the  web  has  reached  the 
size-rolls  it  will  have  expanded  as  much  as  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  more  than  it  measured  when  it 
entered  the  tub.  This  expansion  takes  place  with 
all  papers ;  but  owing  to  the  size  being  worked  colder 
on  thin  papers  the  reaction  is  more  sudden,  and 
consequently  the  liability  to  expand  unequally  much 
greater. 

When  sizing  strong  cartridge  papers,  which  are  usually 
finished  rough,  and  therefore  wanted  as  flat  as  possible, 
the  size  should  be  hot.  Running  such  papers  straight 
on  to  the  drier  from  the  sizer,  without  reeling,  helps  to 
flatten  them,  and  if  they  are  wound  against  a  revolving 
drum  the  pressure,  as  the  roll  gets  larger,  also  tends  to 
flatten  them  out.  One  drawback  to  running  the  paper 
straight  on  to  the  drier  is  that  the  alum  in  the  size 
does  not  get  time  to  penetrate  into  the  pores,  and  the 
under  side  is  apt  to  become  covered  with  glistening 
specks. 

To  cure  this  the  size  should  be  made  up  with  a 
larger  quantity  of  soap,  reduced  in  strength  and  heated' 
It  is  the  practice,  in  some  mills,  to  run  the  paper  over 
a  hollow  drum  filled  with  cold  water  and  kept  cool  by 
a  stream  of  water  running  through  it.  Paper  cooled 
in  this  way  sizes  better  and  runs  flatter ;  but  with 


144  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

particular  papers  the  better  plan  is  to  reel  them  at 
the  machine  and  allow  them  to  stand  till  cold  before 
sizing. 

When  drying  such  papers  the  drier  should  not  be 
driven  harder  than  about  sixty  feet  a  minute,  while 
a  good  heat  should  be  kept  up.  Even  when  standing 
no  longer  than  it  takes  to  change  the  speeds,  paper 
made  and  sized  at  a  hundred  feet  a  minute,  when  dried 
at  sixty  feet  with  the  same  steam  pressure,  but  with 
fewer  fans  running,  will  hardly  be  recognised  as  the 
same,  it  will  feel  so  much  firmer  and  be  so  much  better 
sized. 

Paper  allowed  to  stand  after  sizing  is  always  more 
difficult  to  dry,  owing  to  the  size  having  penetrated 
into  the  pores,  and  this  is  more  noticeable  on  damp, 
wet  nights,  when  the  air  about  the  roof  of  the  drying- 
house  is  more  moist  and  less  able  to  absorb  the 
steam. 

When  drying  papers  to  be  finished  rough  the  guiding 
tapes  should  be  run  to  the  side  as  soon  as  the  web 
has  fairly  started,  and  only  put  on  again  in  time  to 
keep  the  tail  from  trailing  on  the  wire  frame  which 
usually  covers  the  steam  pipes  used  for  heating. 
Formerly  it  was  thought  that  three  or  four  tapes  on 
top  and  bottom  were  necessary,  but  one  from  the  top 
and  one  from  beneath  are  quite  sufficient,  and  there 
is  less  risk  of  marking  the  paper  than  when  more 
are  used. 

In  the  drying  of  loft-dried  papers  the  temperature 


LOFT   DRYING.  HS 

of  the  loft  must  be  kept  as  near  that  of  the  ordinary 
summer  atmosphere  as  possible,  and  as  much  advan- 
tage as  possible  should  be  taken  of  the  atmospheric  air, 
when  sufficiently  dry,  to  be  admitted  to  the  loft  without 
risk  of  making  the  papers  mussy  after  drying. 


CHAPTER   XI. 
GLAZING  AND  BURNISHING. 

WHEN  paper  is  glazed  by  the  calenders  attached  to  the 
machine,  it  is  usually  damped  before  being  put  through 
the  calender  rolls.  Prior  to  this,  however,  it  has 
generally  passed  between  what  are  called  the  smooth- 
ing rolls,  which  are  situated  just  before  the  last  set 
of  drying  cylinders.  These  usually  consist  of  two  rolls 
heated  by  steam,  though  not  to  the  same  extent  as  the 
calender  rolls. 

By  keeping  the  paper  a  little  damp  as  it  passes 
through  these  smoothing-rolls,  and  not  heating  the  last 
cylinders  any  more  than  is  necessary  to  prevent  damp 
spots,  the  surface  imparted  by  the  calender-rolls  is 
much  improved.  When  a  good  surface  is  wanted  the 
stuff  must  be  kept  fine,  as  long  stuff,  though  taking 
on  a  good  finish,  always  rises  up  in  the  sheet,  causing 
a  roughness,  especially  on  the  underside.  To  quote 
the  remark  of  a  shrewd  old  paper-maker — "  It's  just 
like  smoothing  sand  and  smoothing  gravel." 

Even  papers  made  from  long  stuff  are  very  liable  to 
lose  their  surface,  owing  to  this  rising  of  the  longer 


DAMPING.  147 

fibres,  unless  the  pressure  in  glazing  is  sufficient  to 
thoroughly  close  the  sheet.  The  improvement  which 
can  be  effected  on  the  surface  by  finer  stuff  is  greater 
than  is  usually  supposed. 

The  author  knew  a  machine-man  who  used  regularly 
to  get  his  beater-man  to  empty  a  finer  engine  as  soon 
as  possible  after  his  shift  came  on,  with  the  result  that, 
when  the  foreman  came  round,  in  about  an  hour  and 
a  half,  to  inspect  the  surface,  the  paper  then  being 
made  was  very  much  higher  in  finish  than  that  made 
just  before  the  outgoing  shift  had  dropped  off  work. 

The  form  of  damper  usually  employed  to  moisten 
the  paper  before  it  enters  the  calenders  consists  of 
two  hollow  copper  drums  of  about  15  or  16  inches 
diameter,  though,  of  course,  they  may  be  of  any  desired 
size.  These  drums  are  filled  with  cold  water,  and  kept 
cold  by  means  of  a  continuous  flow  passing  through 
them. 

A  copper  pipe,  perforated  with  numerous  very 
minute  holes,  is  placed  along  the  front  of  each  of  the 
drums,  so  that  the  steam  which  is  blown  from  the 
holes  will  condense  in  the  cold  drums.  The  drums 
are  so  placed  that  when  the  paper  is  running  over 
them  one  will  come  in  contact  with  the  top  and  the 
other  with  the  under  side  of  the  paper.  The  moisture 
deposited  on  the  drums  by  the  condensation  of  the 
steam  is  thus  carried  away  on  the  paper,  and  helps 
greatly  to  improve  the  surface  when  subjected  to  the 
pressure  and  heat  of  the  calender-rolls. 


148  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

Owing,  however,  to  the  moisture  thus  applied  being 
merely  on  the  surface,  and  not  having  time  to  penetrate 
into  the  paper,  the  high  finish  thus  obtained  is  very 
liable  to  go  back.  A  little  sperm  oil  should  be  poured 
on  the  drums  just  at  the  edges  of  the  web,  so  that 
the  water  may  be  prevented  from  passing  on  to  the 
calender  rolls,  and  so  causing  rust  on  the  edges. 

Printing  papers,  on  which  a  very  high  finish  is 
wanted,  are  often  glazed  on  the  super-calender,  after 
having  been  given  a  good  machine  finish.  The  contact 
with  the  alternating  metal  and  cotton,  or  paper-covered 
rolls,  has  the  effect  of  imparting  a  velvety  feel,  un- 
obtainable by  the  passage  through  the  machine 
calenders. 

A  little  of  an  alkaline  soap,  made  by  dissolving 
white  soap  in  caustic  lye,  is  often  added  to  the  pulp 
in  the  engine,  in  order  to  improve  the  surface. 

When  paper  is  damped  before  glazing  on  the  super- 
calender,  the  rolls  must  be  worked  at  a  heat  sufficient 
to  dry  it.  The  cooler  the  paper  to  be  damped  is  made 
the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of  water  absorbed, 
without  causing  the  rolls  to  "  bag "  when  winding  on 
the  damper,  and  the  more  pressure  will  it  bear  in 
passing  through  the  rolls.  For  this  reason  both  tub- 
sized  and  engine-sized  papers  should  be  allowed  to 
lie  in  a  cool  place  for  some  time  before  damping. 

To  obtain  a  surface  which  will  not  be  liable  readily 
to  go  back,  the  pressure  must  not  be  too  heavy,  nor 
must  the  rolls  be  worked  with  too  much  heat.  It  is 


GLAZING.  149 

much  better  for  the  appearance  of  the  paper  to  put 
it  through  twice  than  to  work  heavy  pressure,  and 
glaze  with  one  passage  only.  The  amount  of  pressure 
which  can  be  applied  without  unduly  crushing  the 
paper  depends  very  much  on  the  stock  from  which 
it  is  made. 

Papers  largely  composed  of  straw  require  a  good 
pressure,  in  order  that  they  may  be  closed  so  as  to 
avoid  the  rising  before  referred  to.  This  is  especially 
the  case  when  such  papers  have  been  damped. 

Owing  to  the  hard  nature  of  their  ultimate  fibres, 
wood  and  straw  papers  are  very  liable  to  become 
wrinkled  when  damped,  and  this  will  be  more  notice- 
able if  they  have  been  hot  when  put  through  the 
damper.  Should  papers  consisting  wholly,  or  in  large 
proportion,  of  wood  become  too  dry  on  the  calender 
rolls,  they  will  be  very  apt  to  break,  owing  to  their 
hard,  brittle  nature. 

In  glazing  highly-finished  paper  for  magazine  and 
illustrated  work,  in  which  the  surface  and  not  the 
appearance  is  of  the  first  importance,  the  pressure 
applied  in  the  super-calender  is  often  such  as  to  cause 
all  the  sheave  and  gritty  matters  to  show  up. 

In  glazing  high-coloured  papers  made  from  coarse 
stock  which  has  been  kept  long  in  the  engine,  very 
heavy  pressures  are  necessary,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
degree  of  finish  usually  imparted  to  such  papers. 
Quite  a  common  pressure  for  that  class  of  papers  is 
about  1 1  tons  on  each  end  of  the  calender,  while  some 


150  PRACTICAL  PAPER  MAKING. 

of  the  most  recently  fitted  up  calenders  are  supplied 
with  weights  equal  to  50  tons. 

At  all  times,  but  especially  when  glazing  tinted 
papers,  the  greatest  care  must  be  exercised  to  keep 
the  heat  of  the  rolls  as  uniform  as  possible,  as  care- 
lessness in  this  respect  is  very  often  the  unsuspected 
cause  of  the  appearance  of  shades.  This  applies  with 
even  greater  force  to  the  burnishing  calender,  as  even 
a  slight  variation  of  the  heat  of  the  burnishing-roll 
will  cause  shades  to  appear. 

A  good  plan  to  prevent  the  overheating  of  the 
burnishing-roll  is  to  let  both  steam  and  water  into  it, 
so  that  it  may  be  quickly  cooled  down  should  the  heat 
become  too  strong. 

In  friction  glazing,  as  in  super-calendering,  the  best 
results  can  be  obtained  by  working  with  little  or  no 
pressure,  and  putting  the  paper  through  more  fre- 
quently. To  keep  the  burnisher  working  smoothly,  the 
wax  should  be  frequently  applied,  so  that  it  may  not 
dry  and  crack  the  paper.  Should  the  paper  be  too 
damp  when  glazing  or  burnishing,  it  will  be  liable 
to  become  blackened.  This  blackening  is  sometimes 
attributed  to  the  want  of  wax  on  the  burnisher,  but 
neglect  to  put  wax  on  the  roll,  though  a  very  frequent 
cause  of  cracks,  will  not,  under  usual  conditions  of 
working,  be  liable  to  cause  it. 

The  surface  imparted  to  paper  glazed  in  a  properly 
constructed  plate  calender  is  much  more  silky  than  the 
finish  obtained  on  the  super-calender.  This  is  due  to 


PLATE    GLAZING.  151 

the  pressure  on  the  plate  calender  being  so  much  less, 
and  thus  the  original  elasticity  of  the  fibres  is  pre- 
served to  a  much  greater  extent. 

This  has  the  effect  of  making  plate-glazed  papers 
bulk  much  better  than  similar  papers  finished  on  the 
super-calender,  and  in  addition  they  have  a  more 
mellow  appearance.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  that 
the  plates  used  are  free  from  gritty  matters,  otherwise 
the  papers  will  be  very  liable  to  become  indented  and 
rendered  rough  on  the  surface. 


CHAPTER   XII. 
CUTTING.— FINISHING. 

Cutting, — The  first  thing  to  be  done  when  preparing 
to  start  a  revolving  cutter  is  to  place  the  roll  with 
least  breaks — that  is,  if  those  to  be  cut  are  not  free 
from  breaks — in  the  bottom  bracket  nearest  to  the 
feeding-rolls. 

The  reason  why  a  roll  without  breaks  should  be 
put  there  is  that  any  breaks  or  cracks  on  the  others 
may  be  led  over  the  boards  and  through  the  rolls 
without  the  risk  of  catching  and  tearing,  being  sup- 
ported on  this  under  web.  As  this  roll  is  also  the 
guide  when  setting  the  circulars,  the  one  put  on 
should  be  as  evenly  wound  as  possible.  When 
this  roll  has  been  put  on,  and  before  any  of  the 
others  are  lifted  into  position,  the  paper  should  be 
torn  perfectly  square,  and,  after  folding,  put  carefully 
into  the  feeding-rolls. 

The  utmost  care  is  necessary  that  it  may  not  be 
slanted,  even  in  the  slightest  degree,  as  should  it 
be  even  an  eighth  of  an  inch  off  the  square,  the 


REVOLVING    CUTTER.  153 

circulars  will  be  set  fully  an  inch  off  the  line ;  and  if 
the  brackets  cannot  be  altered  to  bring  the  sheets 
right,  there  is  nothing  for  it  but  to  shut  down  and  put 
the  circulars  into  line  again. 

The  number  of  rolls  which  can  be  cut  at  one  time 
depends  on  the  condition  of  the  cross-cutting  knife ; 
but  even  with  a  sharp  knife  six  rolls  of  the  substance 
of  large  post  21  Ibs.  is  a  heavy  filling. 

Should  the  filling  be  too  heavy,  the  under  sheet 
is  very  liable  to  be  torn  in  a  peculiar  manner,  very 
difficult  to  detect,  unless  the  cutter-man  knows  where 
to  look  for  it.  This  tear  is  usually  of  a  small  semi- 
circular shape,  somewhat  irregular,  however,  and  as 
it  is  on  the  under  sheet  it  may  run  for  some  time 
before  it  is  noticed.  It  is  torn  off  just  when  the  cross- 
cutting  knife  is  passing  the  dead  knife,  and  falls  down 
on  to  the  carrying-felt. 

When  this  tear  makes  its  appearance,  which  will 
be  either  when  the  filling  is  too  heavy  or  the  knife 
too  blunt,  the  best  plan  is  to  break  off  one  of  the 
rolls,  and  thus  allow  the  knife  to  go  through,  the 
remaining  sheets  without  any  shock. 

Great  care  must  be  exercised,  when  setting  newly- 
sharpened  circular  knives,  not  to  press  them  against 
the  under  knives  until  the  fine  wire  edge  has  taken 
on  a  skin.  To  bring  up  this  skin,  they  should  be 
gently  rubbed  with  a  fine  file.  A  good  plan  is  to 
put  a  piece  of  thin  copying  or  tissue  paper  between 
the  block  and  the  knife  when  setting  for  the  first 


154  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

day  or  two,  and  as  the  edge  becomes  hardened  gradually 
to  bring  them  closer. 

When  new  the  cross-cutting  knife  needs  little 
attention;  but  the  parts  not  cutting  the  paper  should 
always  be  kept  well  oiled,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
attrition  as  they  come  in  contact  with  the  dead 
knife. 

When  letting  out  the  spring  nearest  the  front  of 
the  cutter,  it  must  be  done  very  cautiously,  and 
after  doing  so  the  knife  should  always  be  driven 
through  with  the  hand,  to  make  sure  that  it  is  not 
too  far  out.  Should  it  be  too  much  sprung  it  will 
lock  into  the  dead  knife  and  seriously  damage  both. 
Should  the  cross-cutting  knife  miss  at  any  point, 
the  portion  on  each  side  of  it  must  be  rubbed  down 
with  a  file  so  as  to  bring  them  to  the  same  level 
as  the  point  which  is  missing. 

The  feeding-rolls  must  always  be  kept  free  from 
oil,  especially  the  jacket,  as  should  any  get  on  to 
them  they  will  slip  over  the  paper  instead  of  draw- 
ing it  in  regularly,  and  cause  short  and  long  sheets. 
This  may  be  detected  by  watching  the  feed  of  the 
paper,  as  if  the  rolls  are  slipping  it  will  be  very 
noticeably  irregular.  When  oil  has  got  on  to  them 
a  rub  with  a  cloth  moistened  with  turpentine  will 
take  it  off  immediately. 

Should  the  paper  be  badly  cut,  it  should  be  closely 
watched  between  the  tube-rolls  and  the  cross-cutting 
knife,  and,  if  any  lurch  is  seen  then,  the  screw  of 


SHORT  AND  LONG  SHEETS.         155 

the  pulley  wheel  must  be  looked  to,  as,  if  it  has 
become  loose,  it  will  cause  the  paper  to  be  unevenly 
cut.  The  screws  of  the  spur-wheels  must  also  be 
kept  tight,  or  the  cutting  will  be  very  defective. 
Should  the  cutting  be  bad,  owing  to  a  backlash  on 
any  of  the  pinions,  a  piece  of  clean  leather  inserted 
between  the  shaft  of  the  cross-cutting  knife  and  the 
brass  at  the  back  of  the  cutter,  and  firmly  wedged 
down  by  means  of  the  collar,  will  remedy  it. 
Though  it  is  useless  unless  the  shaft  heats  a  little, 
care  must  be  taken  to  keep  it  moistened  with  oil  to 
prevent  undue  heating. 

When  the  length  of  the  sheet  being  cut  is  50 
inches  and  upwards,  some  difficulty  may  be  ex- 
perienced in  keeping  the  sheets  from  rushing  against 
the  revolving  frame,  owing  to  the  slow  revolution 
of  the  cross- cutting  knife  compared  with  the  speed 
of  the  other  portions  of  the  cutter. 

To  cure  this,  two  of  the  blade  screws  should  be 
unscrewed,  and  a  long  sheet  of  paper  or  clean  wrapper 
screwed  between  them  opposite  to  the  paper.  These 
sheets  are  allowed  to  hang  like  flags,  and  as  they  pass 
round  against  the  paper  serve  to  drive  down  the 
sheets  on  to  the  carrying  felt. 

When  cutting  a  short  sheet  of  perhaps  14  inches, 
or  nearly  the  length  of  the  fall  between  the  dead 
knife  and  the  felt,  the  heaving  felt  is  very  liable  to 
come  against  it  just  as  the  cross-cutting  knife  is  going 
through,  and  thus  both  uneven  and  badly  squared 


156  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

sheets  are  the  result.  A  piece  of  thick  twine  stretched 
across  the  cutter,  on  the  top  of  the  paper,  an  inch 
or  two  back  from  the  dead  knife,  will  generally  cure 
this ;  but  it  is  rather  dangerous  mending  a  break 
on  the  top  roll  when  it  is  on,  as  the  cutter-man 
must  lift  the  string  with  his  fingers,  to  allow  the 
tail  of  the  paper  to  pass  under.  In  such  a  case  the 
better  plan  is  to  shut  and  lead  it  under,  when  it  can 
be  done  with  perfect  safety. 

When  cutting  friction-glazed  paper  the  feeding-rolls 
will  not  take  more  than  three  rolls  at  a  time  with 
security,  unless  the  brasses  are  wedged  and  firmly 
pressed  down  at  both  ends,  when  six  rolls  may  be  cut 
at  once  and  nothing  go  wrong.  The  high  polish  on 
the  paper,  together  with  the  wax  applied  at  the 
burnisher,  causes  the  middle  sheets  to  slip  so  much 
that  they  will  often  be  as  much  as  an  inch  short,  while 
the  top  and  bottom  sheets  are  quite  right. 

As  there  is  not  usually  a  guard  on  the  rolls,  this 
pressing  is  not  to  be  recommended,  on  account  of  the 
danger  when  mending  breaks.  Should  even  a  small 
piece  of  broke  run  round  the  under  feeding-roll,  the 
size  of  the  sheet  being  cut  will  be  instantly  raised, 
though  .no  harm  will  result  should  any  run  round  the 
top  roll. 

Should  the  circular  or  block  knife,  running  out  of 
gearing  between  those  which  are  cutting,  be  left  slack, 
either  the  one  or  the  other  will  be  sure  to  slide  along 
the  shaft  until  they  nearly  meet,  making  a  long  straight 


CUTTING   BURNISHED   PAPERS.  157 

line  on  the  paper,  which,  though  not  easy  to  detect, 
neither  plate  calenders  nor  anything  else  will  take  out 
again. 

When  the  circulars  are  dull,  and  the  machine  cutting 
friction-glazed  or  even  ordinary  papers  with  a  narrow 
selvage,  the  knives  at  the  edges  will  cut  the  sheets 
very  unevenly,  which  will  soon  be  noticed,  as  sheets 
cut  in  this  way  are  generally  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
broader  than  the  size. 

The  best  cure  for  this  is  to  shut  and  drive  a  nail 
into  the  board  between  the  feeding-rolls  and  the  knives, 
and  opposite  each  circular,  which  is  cutting  the  bad 
edge,  to  hang  a  folded  sheet  (not  more  than  two  plies) 
on  to  the  nail,  and  then  lead  it  over  and  underneath 
the  board,  so  that  when  the  cutter  is  started  it  will  run 
into  each  circular  and  hang  there,  being  clasped  on  the 
nail. 

Should  a  break  on  the  top  roll  run  over  instead  of 
between  the  tube-rolls,  when  cutting  square  paper,  the 
sheets  are  liable  to  be  cut  off  the  square,  though  when 
cutting  angle  little  or  no  difference  is  caused.  The 
belt  which  runs  over  the  expanding  pulley  should  always 
be  kept  tight,  as  should  it  be  left  slack  the  sheet  will  rise 
in  size  from  I  inch  to  4  inches.  In  fact,  from  the  drags 
which  hang  on  the  rolls,  upwards,  everything  must  be 
kept  tight  in  order  to  ensure  regular  cutting. 

If  the  feeding-rolls  are  creasing  the  paper,  the  edge 
where  the  crease  runs  out  should  be  eased  slightly  in 
order  to  put  the  crease  away.  Should  this  be  in- 


158  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

effectual,  easing  the  tube-rolls  will  slacken  the  strain 
and  also  help  to  put  the  creases  away,  but  when 
altering  the  tube-rolls  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
square  is  not  altered.  Tissue  and  copying  papers  are 
most  liable  to  crease,  and  sometimes  the  top  tube-roll 
has  to  be  taken  out  altogether  in  order  to  prevent 
creasing,  though,  usually,  lifting  it  about  one  turn  of 
the  screw  at  each  side  will  be  sufficient. 

To  prevent  creasing  at  the  feeding-rolls  the  top  one 
should  be  lifted,  after  all  the  tails  are  in,  and  the  size 
measured  ready  for  a  start,  and  a  long  strip  of  soft  felt 
about  two  inches  broad  wound  round  each  end  and 
made  to  adhere  by  means  of  resin,  so  that  it  may  not 
come  off,  but  press  on  the  paper  above  the  selvage 
which  the  end  circulars  are  taking  off.  Enough  felt 
should  be  put  on  to  admit  of  the  jacket  being  raised 
about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  above  the  paper. 

The  cutter  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  longer  than 
two  or  three  minutes  without  paper  if  the  knives  are 
in  gearing,  because,  should  they  become  heated  by 
friction,  they  are  very  difficult  to  put  right  again.  For 
the  same  reason  care  must  be  taken  that  no  part  of 
the  knife  outside  the  breadth  of  the  paper  is  left  hard 
pressed. 

Should  the  knife  be  blunt  and  any  part  of  it  pressed 
hard  up  by  means  of  the  springs  in  order  to  make  it  cut, 
the  square  is  very  liable  to  be  altered,  and  while  the 
back  sheet  may  be  all  right  the  front  one  will  some- 
times be  half  an  inch  off  the  square.  This  is  most 


SINGLE  AND  DOUBLE  DRAW.  159 

liable  to  occur  when  the  centre  springs  are  pressed  up, 
and  may  be  remedied  by  inserting  five  or  six  plies  of 
wrapper  underneath  the  metal  plate  at  the  back  of  the 
dead  knife.  This  wrapper  may  either  be  put  in  at 
the  front  or  the  back,  according  to  whether  the  square 
is  off  the  one  way  or  the  other,  and  the  thickness  of 
the  plies  can  be  regulated  so  as  to  give  the  distance 
that  the  sheet  requires. 

The  number  of  inches  which  the  carriage  requires 
to  be  moved  when  altering  the  draw  depends  on  the 
angle  or  dip  at  which  the  frame  is  built.  When  finding 
the  square  the  sheets  must  always  be  taken  from  the  felt 
in  the  one  direction  and  folded  in  the  same  way,  that  it 
may  be  readily  ascertained  whether  they  are  over  or 
under,  should  they  require  altering. 

When  changing  from  the  single  to  the  double  draw, 
the  square,  though  quite  right  when  running  the 
single  sheet,  will,  owing  to  the  slow  revolution  of  the 
cross-cutting  knife,  be  found  to  be  under  the  size,  the 
variation  depending  on  the  length  of  the  draw.  Should 
the  draw  have  been  lengthened  the  carriage  will  re- 
quire to  be  drawn  out  a  little,  and  when  changing  back 
to  the  single  draw  it  will  have  to  be  put  in  again. 

In  cutting  angles  the  brackets  should  be  drawn  as 
near  to  the  front  of  the  cutter  as  possible,  so  that  the 
backside  sheet  will  have  a  shorter  distance  to  travel 
over  the  boards ;  and  care  must  always  be  taken  when 
making,  that  the  papers  are  not  too  broad  for  the  cutter, 
as,  if  so,  the  points  of  the  sheets  will -run  straight  into 


160  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

the  frame  instead  of  down  the  felt.  The  second  tube- 
rolls,  worked  when  cutting  angles  which  come  up  to 
about  forty-five  degrees,  and  sometimes  over  that,  must 
always  be  perfectly  square,  or  they  will  draw  in  the 
paper  unevenly. 

When  the  tube-rolls  are  not  drawing  quick  enough 
to  keep  the  paper  tight,  a  turn  or  so  of  paper  wound 
round  them  will  draw  it  up  quite  tight.  When  this 
paper  is  put  on  it  should  be  kept  about  an  inch  clear 
of  each  edge,  otherwise  the  rolls  are  very  apt  to  knock 
small  holes  or  cracks  into  the  sheets. 

If  the  feeding-rolls  have  been  pressed  for  burnished 
paper,  the  blocks  must  be  taken  out  before  cutting 
papers  such  as  cartridges,  which  are  usually  finished 
rough,  as  the  hard-pressed  jacket  would  put  a  glaze 
on  that  portion  which  passed  under  it.  The  string 
across  the  dead  knife  should  never  be  used  when  the 
draw  is  fifty  inches  or  upwards,  as  the  slow  motion 
of  the  knife  sends  the  paper  over  it,  and  thus  makes 
it  dangerous  for  the  square. 

When  starting  a  new  knife  on  the  English  cutter, 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  it  will  go  through 
without  becoming  locked ;  and  with  new  or  newly- 
ground  circulars  the  same  precautions  should  be  em- 
ployed as  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  revolving 
cutter. 

Should  the  feeding-rolls  slip,  and  thus  draw  the 
paper  unequally,  a  piece  of  thin  paper  wound  round 
the  top  roll  will  make  them  draw  much  better.  While 


FINISHING.  161 

the  "  dancer  "  must  not  be  allowed  to  fall  too  far  down, 
the  paper  must  not  be  drawn  so  tightly  as  to  raise  it 
against  the  platform,  or  it  will  be  sure  to  cause  a 
break. 

When  quickening  the  speed  of  the  drum  by  means 
of  the  screw  attached  to  the  arm,  in  order  to  bring 
up  the  name,  the  belt  should  be  put  up  the  cone  a 
little  in  order  to  bring  up  the  draw  from  the  reel, 
and  thus  prevent  the  "  dancer "  becoming  too  much 
drawn  up. 

When  the  cross-cutting  knife  misses  it  should  be 
raised  up  a  little  by  means  of  the  screw ;  this  should 
be  done  very  carefully,  in  order  to  avoid  the  risk  of 
bringing  it  too  far  up,  and  thus  causing  it  to  grip  the 
dead  knife. 

When  cutting  lined  paper  it  may  happen  that  the 
lines  do  not  come  exactly  parallel  when  the  sheets  are 
folded,  owing  to  the  dandy  not  having  been  set 
perfectly  parallel  on  the  machine. 

This  may  be  remedied  to  a  great  extent  by  winding 
thin  strips  of  paper  round  the  "  dancer "  at  the  side 
where  the  lines  are  farthest  ahead.  This  has  the 
effect  of  drawing  the  side  to  which  it  is  put  so  much 
back,  as  to  bring  up  the  side  which  is  farthest  off  the 
parallel. 

Finishing, — The  different  stages  through  which  the 
paper  passes  in  the  salle  are  entirely  dependent  on 

the  qualities  produced  in  the  mill,  and  thus  the  degree 

II 


162  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

of  overhauling  to  which  it  is  subjected  varies  with  the 
requirements  of  each  different  mill.  As  a  rule,  the 
higher  the  quality  and  price  of  a  paper  the  more 
closely  is  it  overhauled,  and,  consequently,  the  greater 
is  the  proportion  of  retree  laid  out. 

During  the  last  year  or  two  the  engine-sized  machine- 
finished  papers  have  reached  to  such  a  degree  of  per- 
fection that  it  would  almost  seem  as  if  eventually  the 
better  qualities  of  tub-sized  papers  would  be  driven  out 
of  the  market  altogether ;  and,  consequently,  the  engine- 
sized  papers  have  to  be  much  more  closely  overhauled 
than  was  thought  necessary  several  years  ago. 


• 
UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Plate  V. 


FIG.  9. — CHEMICAL  WOOD  AND  ESPARTO  x  130. 


FIG.  10.— COTTON,  LINEN,  WOOD,  AND  ESPARTO  x  122. 

[To  face  page  163- 


CHAPTER   XIII. 
MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION  OF  PAPER. 

NOTWITHSTANDING  what  has  been  written  about  the 
reagents  necessary  to  enable  the  microscopist  to 
distinguish  the  various  fibres  after  they  have  been 
made  into  paper,  they  are  of  little  practical  use.  The 
reason  of  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  groups  into 
which  the  fibres  can  be  separated  by  means  of 
these  reagents  are  those  which  are  most  easily  dis- 
tinguished without  their  use. 

The  reagent  most  commonly  used  is  a  solution  of 
iodine  in  potassium  iodide.  Cotton,  flax,  and  hemp 
fibres,  when  moistened  with  this  reagent,  are  coloured 
a  dull  red  violet;  esparto,  straw,  and  chemical  wood 
fibres  are  nearly  colourless,  excepting  the  brownish- 
yellow  tinge  of  the  solution.  Unbleached,  or  imper- 
fectly bleached,  wood  and  jute  show  this  yellow  tinge ; 
but,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  incrusting  substances, 
it  is  much  more  distinct. 

In  order  to  render  the  colours  more  distinct,  a  dilute 

solution  of  sulphuric  acid  may  be  used  to  moisten  the 

163 


164  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

fibres,  after  they  have  been  in  contact  with  the  iodine 
for  some  time.  For  the  student  of  paper-making,  who 
merely  wishes  to  become  acquainted  with  the  physical 
characteristics  of  the  various  fibres,  and  thus  be  able 
to  determine  the  materials  of  which  the  papers  which 
may  come  under  his  notice  are  composed,  a  very  good 
beginning  may  be  made  with  a  microscope  provided 
with  optics  magnifying  from  80  to  IOO  times. 

The  glass  slides  and  covers  used  in  mounting  can 
be  had  from  any  chemical  dealer,  and  cost  very  little ; 
while  the  teasing  needles  can  easily  be  made  by  in- 
serting the  thick  end  of  an  ordinary  needle  in  a  small 
piece  of  wood,  or  the  handle  of  a  crochet  needle,  and 
bending  the  point  to  the  desired  angle,  after  having 
heated  it  in  the  gas. 

A  small  bottle  of  glycerine,  for  softening  and  ren- 
dering the  fibres  more  transparent,  should  also  be 
procured,  and  a  pair  of  small  forceps  will  be  required, 
in  order  to  lift  on  and  off  the  glass  covers. 

Before  beginning  to  examine  paper,  specimens  of  the 
different  fibres,  after  they  have  been  reduced  to  half- 
stuff,  but  before  treatment  in  the  beater,  should  be 
mounted,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  hand  for  comparison. 
Suppose  the  first  of  these  specimens  to  be  prepared 
is  that  of  esparto  grass,  a  small  piece  of  which  has 
been  obtained  from  the  presse-pdte  web.  As  the  ulti- 
mate fibres  are  not  firmly  felted  together,  they  yield 
very  readily  when  drawn  apart  by  the  needles. 

A  small  piece  should  be  placed  on  the  slide  to  be 


MOUNTING  STANDARD  SPECIMENS.  165 

used,  and  having  been  covered  with  a  drop  of  glycer- 
ine, should  be  separated  into  ultimate  fibres  by  means 
of  the  teasing  needles.  It  is  much  better  to  examine 
three  or  four  isolated  fibres  than  a  complicated  net- 
work, as  by  doing  so  the  characteristic  structural 
details,  together  with  the  length  and  the  formation  of 
the  ends,  can  be  much  better  seen. 

Papers  to  be  examined  should  first  be  boiled  for  a 
few  minutes  in  a  dilute  alcoholic  solution,  in  order  to 
remove  the  size  coating  from  the  fibres.  Even  when 
aided  by  reliable  specimens,  the  work  of  distinguishing 
the  various  fibres  is  at  first  attended  with  difficulties 
which  can  only  be  overcome  by  much  practice. 

By  using  dilute  colouring  solutions  of  carnation  or 
magenta  when  mounting,  the  characteristic  appearance 
of  the  upper  skin  is  more  distinctly  brought  out. 
When  working  with  a  low  power  objective,  the  field 
is  enlarged,  and  thus  the  whole  length  of  the  fibres 
brought  into  view,  with  the  result  that  a  much  better 
idea  of  the  comparative  proportions  of  the  different 
fibres  is  obtained.  For  this  reason,  the  objective  em- 
ployed for  ordinary  work  should  not  exceed  100  to  150 
diameters. 

The  advantage  of  becoming  thoroughly  accustomed 
to  view  the  fibres  under  such  a  magnification  will  be 
much  appreciated  when  a  higher  power  is  substituted, 
in  order  to  render  the  structural  details  of  any  fibre,  or 
group  of  fibres,  more  apparent.  When  changing  the 
objectives  from  a  low  to  a  high  power,  the  proportions 


166  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

must  always  be  borne  in  mind,  as  fibres  which  present 
a  similarity  of  appearance,  though  differing  as  to  length 
and  diameter,  are,  at  first  sight,  apt  to  be  confounded. 

For  instance,  esparto,  especially  Spanish,  may  some- 
times be  mistaken  for  linen,  as  seen  under  the  lower 
power,  owing  to  its  enlarged  appearance.  If  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  a  little  of  the  pulp  just  after  fur- 
nishing, and  before  the  roll  has  had  time  to  reduce  it, 
and,  again,  as  it  is  ready  to  pass  over  the  machine,  a 
very  good  idea  of  the  effect  of  the  treatment  can  be 
obtained. 

The  quickest  way  to  mount  such  a  sample  is  to 
dilute  it  with  water  until  it  is  thin  enough  to  be  viewed 
by  transmitted  light,  and  then  pour  a  little  into  a  small 
glass  live  box,  when  it  is  immediately  ready  to  be 
examined.  Viewed  in  this  way,  the  fibres  are  much 
less  transparent,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  glycerine, 
and  thus  the  appearance  of  the  external  parts  is  much 
easier  noticed.  Examined  in  this  way,  cotton  fibres 
will  be  seen  to  be  quite  opaque,  while  the  transparent 
central  canal  of  linen  fibres  will  be  very  apparent. 

Cotton  fibres  consist  of  opaque,  flattened,  ribbon-like 
tubes,  frequently  twisted  upon  themselves.  The  side 
walls  are  thinj  while  the  central  canal  is  large.  The 
outer  skin  is  rough  and  granulated,  presenting,  when 
dry,  a  dark,  opaque  appearance.  When  moistened 
with  glycerine  or  Canada  balsam  it  loses  this  dulness 
and  becomes  transparent.  On  examining  the  fibres 
before  beating,  one  end  will  be  seen  to  taper  away  at 


Plate  VI. 


FIG.  ii.— LINEN,  COTTON,  AND  ESPARTO  x  130. 


FIG.   12.— MANILLA  AND  COTTON  x  122. 

[To  face  page  166. 


STRUCTURE  OF  FIBRES.  167 

a  slight  angle  to  a  fine  point,  while  the  other  takes  the 
form  of  an  irregularly  flattened  knob. 

Linen  fibres  are  long  and,  like  cotton,  tubular;  but 
the  side  walls  are  much  thicker  and  firmer,  while  the 
central  canal,  though  smaller,  is  easily  distinguished 
by  its  transparency,  even  when  no  glycerine  has  been 
used  in  mounting.  They  are  smaller  in  diameter  than 
cotton  fibres.  Sometimes  linen  fibres,  notched  like  a 
bamboo-cane,  are  met  with,  though  usually  the  side 
walls  are  smooth  and  regular.  (See  Plate  VI., 
Fig.  u.) 

Hemp  fibres  are  somewhat  like  cotton  in  that 
they  are  flattened  in  the  same  way  and  have  a  large 
diameter;  but  they  are  not  twisted  upon  themselves 
in  the  manner  characteristic  of  cotton  fibres.  (See 
Plate  I.,  Frontispiece,  Fig.  2.) 

Manilla  fibres  have  a  larger  diameter  than  hemp, 
and  the  side  walls  are  well  defined,  making  the  central 
canal,  which  is  large,  very  easily  seen.  The  side  walls 
are  more  uniform  than  those  of  the  cotton  fibres,  and 
present  a  more  lustrous  appearance  when  mounted  in 
glycerine.  (See  Plate  VI.,  Fig.  12.) 

Jute  fibres  have  unequally  thickened  side  walls, 
which,  however,  are  smooth  externally.  The  fibres 
are  very  seldom  completely  free  from  incrusting 
matters,  which,  when  dry,  obscure  the  central  canal. 

Wood  fibres,  especially  those  from  pulp  prepared  by 
the  sulphite  methods,  are  transparent.  They  resemble 
cotton  fibres  in  their  flattened,  ribbon-like  appearance, 


1 68  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING, 

but  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  them  by  their 
stiff,  rigid,  wooden-like  form.  Not  infrequently,  wood 
fibres,  twisted  upon  themselves  like  cotton,  are  met 
with.  They  are  long  and  of  large  diameter,  while 
those  from  the  pine  woods  show  numerous  small 
vessels  or  dots.  When  dry  the  upper  skin  is  rough 
and  granulated  in  appearance;  and  this  is  especially 
noticeable  in  "  sulphate "  pulp.  When  mounted  in 
glycerine  they  become  very  transparent,  and  it  is  only 
by  carefully  gauging  the  focus  that  the  characteristic 
dots  can  be  brought  into  view.  (See  Plate  V.,  Fig.  9.) 

Esparto  fibres  consist  of  short,  smooth  tubes  with 
finely  tapered  ends.  The  central  canal,  though  small, 
owing  to  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  is  quite  apparent. 
Esparto  can  easily  be  detected,  though  present  in  a 
small  proportion,  in  a  paper,  owing  to  the  characteristic 
serrated  cuticular  cells  which  are  so  easily  recognised. 
(See  Plate  V.,  Fig.  9.) 

The  ultimate  fibres  of  straw,  though  similar  in 
appearance  to  esparto,  are  smaller  both  in  length  and 
diameter,  and  the  ends  are  more  pointed.  The  rigidity 
and  smoothness  of  the  side  walls  are  very  apparent. 
The  cuticular  cells  vary  in  form  with  the  different 
kinds  of  straw  from  which  the  pulp  has  been  prepared. 

Straw  pulp  also  contains  small  oval-shaped  cells, 
which  are  derived  from  the  soft,  pulpy  matter  of  the 
stem,  and,  when  seen,  are  a  sure  indication  of  the 
presence  of  straw.  While  most  of  the  fibres  are 
smooth  and  regular,  sometimes  they  will  be  seen  to 


DETECTION  OF  MECHANICAL   WOOD.  169 

present  a  peculiarly  jointed  appearance,  which  serves 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  smaller  esparto  fibres. 

The  fibres  of  mechanical  wood  present  a  short 
tangled  appearance,  and  are  bound  together,  by  means 
of  the  incrusting  substances,  into  small  bundles.  The 
presence  of  these  incrusting  matters  causes  them  to 
be  dark  and  opaque ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that 
mechanical  wood  is  used  to  prevent  the  transparency 
imparted  to  papers  made  from  highly  bleached  sulphite 
pulp.  (See  Plate  III.,  Fig.  6.) 

The  presence  of  mechanical  wood  in  a  paper  may 
be  detected  by  means  of  a  solution  consisting  of  equal 
parts  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  a  few  drops  of 
which  will  produce  brown  stains  on  paper  containing 
mechanical  wood.  A  solution  of  aniline  sulphate 
forms  a  very  good  reagent  for  the  detection  of  mecha- 
nical wood,  owing  to  the  deep  yellow  stain  which  it 
produces  on  paper  containing  it. 

Though  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  making  a 
quantitative  examination  of  paper  are  great,  yet  to 
the  paper-maker  who  has  already  become  expert  in 
distinguishing  the  various  fibres  in  the  finished  paper, 
such  an  examination  is  quite  within  the  range  of 
possibility,  providing  that  he  can  obtain  samples,  the 
authentic  composition  of  which  is  known,  from  which 
to  prepare  standard  specimens. 

The  first  and  chief  difficulty  lies  in  the  obtaining  of 
such  samples ;  but  should  he  have  access  to  the  beating 
department  of  the  mill,  he  can,  as  the  result  of  some 


170  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

little  attention  and  practical  knowledge,  obtain  samples, 
the  percentage  composition  of  which  is  accurate  enough 
for  all  practical  purposes. 

A  very  convenient  way  of  preserving  these  samples 
is  to  fill  a  number  of  small  glass-stoppered  bottles  with 
the  different  samples,  the  percentage  composition  of 
which  is  known,  taken  from  the  machine  breast-box,  or 
better,  as  it  settles  down  between  the  first  and  second 
slice. 

When  it  is  desired  to  mount  such  stuff,  a  small  drop 
of  it  should  be  lifted  out  by  means  of  a  glass  tube 
drawn  out  to  a  fine  point.  Before  doing  so,  however, 
care  must  be  taken  to  shake  the  bottle  vigorously,  in 
order  that  the  portion  examined  may  represent  the  true 
composition  of  the  whole. 

After  the  drop  has  been  placed  on  the  slide,  the 
excess  of  water  should  be  removed  before  putting  on 
the  glass  cover,  in  order  that  the  fibres  may  not  be 
carried  out  of  the  field  when  the  cover  is  pressed  down. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  carefully  sucking  it  up 
by  means  of  a  slip  of  good  blotting-paper  cut  to  a  fine 
point,  care  being  taken  that  none  of  the  fibres  are 
disturbed,  or  made  to  adhere  to  the  blotting-paper 
when  so  doing. 

A  very  good  plan  is  to  place  two  specimens  of  the 
stuff,  or  paper,  on  the  same  slide,  mounting  the  one  in 
glycerine  or  dilute  alcohol,  without  the  addition  of  a 
colouring  agent,  while  the  other  is  coloured  with  a 
dilute  solution  of  carnation.  If  preferred,  a  drop  of 


UNIVERSITY 


Plate  VII. 


FIG.  13. — COTTON  AND  PEARL  HARDENING  x  123. 


J*       :  '  J 


FIG.  14.— CHINA  CLAY  x  122. 


\_Tofacc  page  171. 


QUANTITATIVE  EXAMINATION  OF  PAPER.      171 

stuff  may  be  mounted  alongside  a  piece  of  the  finished 
paper,  when  it  will  at  once  be  seen  whether  the  action 
of  the  shake,  or  the  contraction  on  the  drying  cylinders, 
has  had  any  effect  in  altering  the  distribution  of  the 
fibres. 

As  the  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  the  papers 
examined  depends  for  its  accuracy  on  the  results 
obtained  by  comparison  with  the  standard  samples,  it 
is  obvious  that,  in  order  to  obtain  satisfactory  results, 
no  care  must  be  spared  in  order  to  insure  that  the 
standard  preparations  may  be  trustworthy. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  composition  of  a 
paper  may,  through  the  addition  of  even  a  small 
quantity  of  "  broke,"  reduced  by  the  edge-runner,  or, 
it  may  be,  furnished  to  the  potcher  with  the  grass, 
become  very  complicated,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
trustworthy  samples  will  be  understood. 

The  degree  of  fineness  to  which  the  fibres  have 
been  reduced  in  the  beater  must  also  be  taken  into 
consideration,  as  the  ultimate  fibres  of  rags  and  wood 
are,  owing  to  the  length,  more  liable  to  become  cut 
up  under  the  action  of  the  roll  than  those  of  esparto 
and  straw.  The  presence  of  fibres  added  as  "  broke  " 
is  much  more  easily  recognised  in  papers  made  from 
long  stuff,  owing  to  the  greater  degree  of  fineness  to 
which  they  have  become  reduced,  consequent  upon 
their  having  been  in  contact  with  the  rolls  and  plates 
so  much  oftener. 

Viewed  microscopically,  the  various  forms  of  load- 


172  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

ing  are  seen  to  be  possessed  of  features  sufficiently 
characteristic  to  make  their  detection  a  matter  of  no 
great  difficulty,  especially  after  the  microscopist  has 
gained  a  knowledge  of  these  characteristics.  The 
finely-divided  particles  of  which  barium  sulphate  is 
composed  are  seen  to  differ  from  those  of  china  clay, 
in  that  they  are  mostly  wedge-shaped,  while  the  clay 
particles  are  irregularly  rounded  in  form. 

Pearl  hardening  is  composed  of  minute  needle-shaped 
crystals,  the  peculiar  form  of  which  makes  them  easily 
recognisable.  (See  Plate  VII.,  Figs.  13  and  14,  and 
Plate  VIII.,  Figs.  15  and  16.) 


Plate  VIII. 


FIG.  15.— PEARL  HARDENING  x.  123. 


FIG.  16.— TERRA  ALBA  x  135. 

\Toface  page  172. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
TESTS  FOR  INGREDIENTS  OF  PAPER. 

Animal  Size. — The  presence  of  animal  size  in  a  paper 
can  be  detected  by  means  of  the  reaction  with  tannic 
acid.  A  piece  of  the  paper  to  be  tested  is  torn  into 
small  fragments  and  placed  in  a  test-tube.  A  small 
quantity  of  distilled  water  is  then  poured  in,  and  the 
tube  held  over  the  gas  for  some  time  in  order  that 
the  boiling  may  extract  the  gelatine,  and  at  the  same 
time  concentrate  the  solution,  so  that  the  reaction  may 
be  the  more  easily  noticeable. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  size  has  been  ex- 
tracted the  boiling  should  be  stopped,  and  after  cooling 
the  tannic  acid  should  be  added.  If  animal  size  is 
present  a  flocculent  milky  precipitate  will  at  once  be 
formed,  owing  to  the  tannate  of  gelatine  produced 
by  the  combination  of  the  gelatine  with  the  tannic 
acid. 

The  consistency  of  the  precipitate  depends  on  the 
amount  of  animal  size  present,  papers  sized  with  a 
strong  solution  of  gelatine  yielding  a  thick  gelatinous 

173 


174  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

precipitate ;  while,  should  the  sizing  be  weak,  a  thin 
milky  precipitate  will  result. 

When  the  reaction  is  so  weak  as  to  be  scarcely 
discernible,  Millon's  reagent  will  require  to  be  em- 
ployed. This  reagent  is  prepared  by  dissolving  a 
known  weight  of  quicksilver  in  an  equal  weight  of 
fuming  nitric  acid,  and  after  cooling  adding  an  equal 
volume  of  distilled  water. 

When  paper  containing  animal  size  is  moistened 
with  this  solution  and  brought  to  a  gentle  heat  over 
the  gas  flame,  a  red  colour  will  be  produced.  This 
colour  will  vary  in  intensity  according  as  the  sizing  of 
the  paper  has  been  strong  or  the  reverse. 

Alum. — To  test  paper  for  free  sulphate  of  alumina 
half  a  sheet  should  be  torn  into  small  pieces  and  boiled 
in  hot  water  until  it  is  reduced  to  a  pulpy  state,  when 
the  contents  of  the  small  flask  in  which  the  boiling 
has  been  conducted  should  be  poured  on  to  a  filter, 
and  the  pulpy  mass  well  washed. 

The  filtrate  should  next  be  boiled  for  a  few  minutes 
with  a  small  quantity  of  ammonium  chloride  solution, 
together  with  a  slight  excess  of  ammonia,  when  any 
sulphate  of  alumina  present  will  be  precipitated  as  a 
finely  divided  white  precipitate. 

Starch. — Starch  can  be  detected  by  means  of  the 
characteristic  blue  colour  produced  when  a  drop  of 
iodine  is  placed  on  a  paper  to  which  stacch  has  been 


TESTS   FOR   INGREDIENTS.  175 

added.  Before  the  amount  of  starch  present  in  a  paper 
can  be  ascertained,  the  size  coating  must  first  be 
removed.  This  is  accomplished  by  boiling  the  sample 
to  be  tested  in  a  strong  alcoholic  solution,  acidulated 
with  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid,  until  the  resin 
has  gone  into  solution. 

The  paper  is  then  washed  with  alcohol,  dried,  and 
weighed.  It  is  next  boiled  with  a  more  dilute  alcoholic 
solution,  also  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  until 
all  the  starch  has  been  dissolved  out.  The  point  when 
this  is  accomplished  is  determined  by  means  of  a 
dilute  solution  of  iodine,  with  which  the  paper  is 
moistened  from  time  to  time,  until  the  characteristic 
blue  colour  ceases  to  be  produced. 

After  washing  and  drying,  the  weight  is  again 
determined,  when  the  difference  in  the  two  weighings 
will  give  the  amount  of  starch  present. 

Chlorides, — Should  it  be  suspected  that  any  of  the 
chlorides,  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  the 
bleaching  powder  solutions,  are  present  in  the  paper, 
the  simplest  method  of  proving  their  existence  is  to 
precipitate  them  by  means  of  silver  nitrate  solution, 
to  which  a  few  drops  of  pure  nitric  acid  have  been 
added. 

To  accomplish  this  the  paper  to  be  tested  should 
be  boiled  with  a  small  quantity  of  distilled  water,  and, 
after  filtering,  a  few  drops  of  the  silver  solution  added 
to  the  filtrate.  Should  chlorides  be  present  a  white 


176  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

curdy  precipitate  will  at  once  separate  out,  which,  when 
exposed  to  the  light,  will  soon  become  blackened. 

Engine  Size. — The  presence  of  engine  size  may  be 
ascertained  by  heating  small  pieces  of  the  paper  to 
be  tested  in  a  strong  alcoholic  solution,  when  the 
resinate  of  alumina  will  be  partly  decomposed.  By 
adding  a  considerable  excess  of  cold  water  the  dissolved 
resin  will  be  precipitated,  as  it  is  insoluble  in  a  dilute 
solution  of  alcohol. 

Schuman's  method  for  the  determination  of  the 
amount  of  resin  consists  in  heating  the  paper  in  a 
dilute  solution  of  caustic  soda  until  the  resin  is  dis- 
solved, and  after  filtering  and  washing  the  paper  well, 
adding  to  the  filtrate  a  sufficient  quantity  of  sulphuric 
acid  to  decompose  the  resin  soap.  The  precipitated 
resin  is  then  obtained  by  pouring  the  milky  solution 
through  a  weighed  filter. 

After  washing  and  drying,  the  filter  containing  the 
resin  is  carefully  weighed,  and  after  deducting  the 
weight  of  the  filter,  as  previously  determined,  the 
weight  of  resin  is  found. 

Mineral  Substances. — The  amount  of  mineral  matters 
present  in  a  sample  of  paper  is  ascertained  by  burning 
a  known  weight  of  it  in  a  small  platinum  crucible, 
and  from  the  weight  of  the  ash  calculating  the  per- 
centage contained  in  it. 

When  pearl  hardening  is  suspected — and  it  can  easily 


TESTS    FOR   INGREDIENTS.  177 

be  detected,  owing  to  the  purity  of  the  ash  when  com- 
pared with  the  dull  colour  of  china  clay — the  blow-pipe 
must  be  used  with  caution,  as  it  (the  ash)  is  very  liable 
to  be  fused  and  blown  out  of  the  crucible  should  it  be 
vigorously  fanned. 

Owing  to  the  reducing  action  of  the  carbon,  the  ash 
from  pearl  hardening  will  contain  a  quantity  of  its 
weight  as  calcium  sulphite,  and  should  be  moistened 
with  sulphuric  acid  and  again  burned  in  order  to 
convert  the  sulphite  back  to  sulphate. 

When  calculating  the  percentage  of  pearl  hardening 
carried  by  the  pulp,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  as 
the  hardening  when  added  to  the  engine  contains  2 
atoms  of  water,  136  parts  of  the  ash  are  equal  to  172 
parts  of  the  hardening  as  furnished  with  the  pulp. 


CHAPTER   XV. 
RECOVERY  OF  SODA. 

Incineration. — At  first  a  matter  of  compulsion,  owing 
to  the  pollution  caused  by  running  the  spent  lye 
from  the  boilings  into  the  rivers,  the  incineration 
and  recovery  of  the  soda  has,  under  the  conditions 
of  working  made  possible  by  the  improved  forms  of 
roasters  now  in  use,  become  a  source  of  profit  to  the 
paper-maker. 

The  idea  in  roasting  the  spent  liquor  is  to  burn  up 
the  non-cellulose  substances  which  the  soda  has  dis- 
solved from  the  raw  materials,  and  which  are  combined 
with  it. 

The  Porion  roaster,  owing  to  the  simplicity  of  its 
construction,  and  the  excellent  results  that  can  be 
obtained  when  it  is  properly  managed,  is  the  one 
most  used  in  this  country.  As  usually  constructed, 
it  consists  of  an  evaporating  chamber,  in  which  the 
lye  is  concentrated  by  the  heat  from  the  gases  on 
their  way  to  the  chimney ;  a  combustion  chamber, 

which    serves    the   double   purpose    of    retaining   the 

178 


PORION   ROASTER.  179 

heat  and  consuming  ,the  smoke ;  a  pan  in  which  the 
incineration  is  conducted;  and  a  suitable  furnace  to 
supply  the  heat  on  which  the  several  stages  in  the 
recovery  depend.  With  this  roaster  all  liquors  from 
5°  Twaddle  can  be  profitably  evaporated. 

The  lye,  as  it  comes  from  the  boilers  or  store 
tanks,  enters  the  evaporating  chamber,  which  is  pro- 
vided with  rapidly  revolving  fans,  or  splashers,  as 
they  are  sometimes  termed.  These  splashers  dip 
into  the  lye,  and,  as  they  revolve,  throw  it  up  against 
the  roof  of  the  chamber  in  a  very  fine  spray,  through 
which  the  hot  fumes  from  the  furnace  and  pan  pass 
on  their  way  to  the  chimney.  This  has  the  effect 
of  greatly  increasing  the  evaporating  surface,  and 
thus  liquors  entering  the  chamber  at  6°  or  7°  Twaddle, 
leave  it,  on  their  way  to  .the  pan,  concentrated  to 
35°  or  40°. 

The  greater  the  concentration  of  the  lye  on  enter- 
ing the  pan,  the  less  water  remains  to  be  driven  off, 
and  thus  the  roasting  can  be  accomplished  with  a 
smaller  consumption  of  coal. 

It  is  the  practice  in  some  mills  to  draw  the  charge 
of  soda  from  the  pan  once  every  twelve  hours,  and 
where  this  mode  of  working  is  adopted  the  lye  is 
allowed  to  run  from  the  evaporating  chamber  to  the 
pan  in  a  continuous  flow  for  about  seven  hours,  and 
only  shut  off  about  four  hours  before  the  time  for  draw- 
ing. During  the  time  that  the  charge  is  burning  off 
the  soda  must  be  well  worked  in  the  pan,  so  that 


l8o  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

it  may  be  perfectly  dry,  and  of  a  dull  red  colour 
when  drawn. 

It  often  happens,  especially  when  much  rag  lye 
has  to  be  burned,  that  the  liquor  becomes  much 
reduced  in  strength,  and  taxes  the  energies  of  the 
roaster-men  to  the  uttermost  to  get  the  pan  ready 
in  time.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  damper  should 
be  opened  more  than  usual,  and  good  fires  kept  up. 
When,  however,  the  liquor  is  of  the  usual  strength, 
the  damper  should  be  worked  as  much  shut  as 
possible  consistent  with  complete  combustion.  In 
this  way  the  temperature  of  the  combustion  and 
evaporating  chambers  is  kept  up,  and  the  concentra- 
tion of  the  lye  much  more  easily  effected. 

When  burning  off,  special  attention  must  be  paid 
to  having  the  damper  well  shut,  otherwise  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  finest  of  the  soda  will  be 
carried  into  the  combustion  chamber  and  on  to  the 
chimney. 

By  regulating  the  roasting  so  as  to  draw  three 
charges  in  twenty-four  hours,  a  better  yield  of  soda  in 
proportion  to  the  coal  consumed  can  be  obtained,  as 
by  such  a  method  the  burning  is  conducted  more 
rapidly,  the  proportion  of  soda  carried  away  by  the 
draught  is  much  less,  and  thus  the  yield  is  increased. 
Working  in  this  way,  20  cwts.  of  completely  calcined 
soda,  containing  45  per  cent,  total  alkali,  can  be 
obtained  with  a  consumption  of  25  cwts.  of  coal. 

The  coal  used  should   be  as  free    from  sulphur  as 


LIXIVIATION.  181 

possible,  as  any  sulphur  present  combines  with  the 
soda  and  reduces  the  yield  of  caustic  in  the  subse- 
quent causticising  process.  While  the  cake,  which 
forms  on  the  lye  in  the  process  of  roasting,  must 
not  be  allowed  to  become  hard,  it  should  not  be 
broken  up  too  frequently,  or  greater  difficulty  will  be 
experienced  in  keeping  up  the  heat. 

After  drawing,  the  soda  should  be  loosely  laid 
down,  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  burn  out  without 
running  together  and  forming  a  cake.  In  about  three 
days  it  should  be  turned  over,  and  in  about  eight 
or  nine  days  will  be  ready  for  the  lixiviation  tanks. 
The  length  of  time  for  which  it  is  allowed  to  lie 
generally  depends  on  how  soon  it  is  required. 

Lixiviation. — The  soda-dissolving  tanks  are  generally 
three  or  four  in  number;  and,  indeed,  to  conduct  the 
extraction  of  the  soda  in  a  satisfactory  way  four  or  five 
tanks  are  necessary.  The  dissolving  is  conducted  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  washing  of  the  grass  in  the 
steeper  tanks.  When  the  soda  has  been  put  in  it  is 
covered  up  with  water,  which  has  previously  been  used 
as  a  third  water. 

After  the  soda  has  been  covered  with  this  weak 
liquor,  pumped  from  the  weak  liquor  tank  or  allowed  to 
flow  from  a  charge  which  has  been  exhausted  and  is 
ready  to  be  cleaned  out,  clean  water,  generally  heated, 
though  some  prefer  to  use  cold,  is  turned  on,  which, 
after  passing  through  one,  two,  or  three  tanks,  ac- 


i82  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

cording  to  the  number  of  tanks  employed,  rises  on  to 
the  fresh  charge,  and.  passing  through  it,  is  run  to  the 
store  tank  as  a  first  liquor. 

This  extraction  may  be  continued  for  twenty-four  to 
thirty  hours,  or  even  longer,  according  to  the  system 
adopted  and  the  strength  of  the  recovered  soda,  and 
the  liquor  should  stand  about  72°  Twaddle  when  first 
run  off.  This  strength  will  gradually  become  weaker, 
until  it  reaches  22°  Twaddle,  when  it  is  turned  off,  and 
made  to  run  on  to  a  fresh  charge,  which  has  been  put 
into  the  tank,  cleaned  out  in  the  interval. 

After  running  into  this  fresh  charge  .for  some  time  it 
is  shut  off  altogether,  and  steam  turned  on  to  boil  it 
for  ten  to  twelve  hours,  and  the  liquor,  after  allowing 
sufficient  time  for  settling,  run  to  the  weak  liquor  tank, 
when  the  mud  is  lifted  out  and  the  fresh  charge 
furnished  to  the  tank. 

Another  method  of  extracting  the  soda  is  to  cover  it 
with  the  liquor  taken  from  a  third  or  fourth  boiling,  and 
boil  it  for  twelve  hours  before  running  off.  After 
running  off  this  strong  liquor  the  tank  is  again  filled 
up  from  a  charge  boiled  for  the  third  time,  and  then 
boiled  for  other  twelve  hours,  and  the  liquor  run  off  to 
the  store  tank,  where  it  is  mixed  with  the  strong  liquor. 
If  the  soda  is  not  yet  exhausted  another  liquor  may  be 
taken  off  before  allowing  the  mud  to  boil  for  two  or 
three  days. 

This  third  liquor  may  be  run  to  the  store  tank  if 
considered  strong  enough,  and,  if  not,  used  to  extract  a 


LIX1VIAT1ON.  183 

fresh  charge.  When  a  fourth  liquor  is  taken  off  it  goes 
to  the  weak  store  tank,  and  is  used  to  cover  the  fresh 
charges  put  in.  The  strong  liquor  obtained  by  this 
method  will  stand  about  70°  Twaddle,  the  second  about 
15°  Twaddle. 

A  first  and  second  liquor  are  run  off  together  every 
day,  and  the  strength  of  the  lye  in  the  store  tank  is 
maintained  about  40°  Twaddle.  In  some  mills  the 
soda  is  dissolved  in  circular  iron  tanks,  divided  into 
two  compartments  by  a  perforated  iron  partition.  The 
recovered  soda  is  placed  in  one  of  the  divisions,  and 
after  being  covered  up  with  weak  liquor  is  boiled  by 
means  of  a  steam-pipe  which  reaches  almost  to  the 
bottom  of  the  tank.  The  agitation  is  further  increased 
by  a  blast  of  air  drawn  in  with  the  steam.  The  charge 
is  boiled  until  it  is  quite  exhausted,  and  then  another 
quantity  is  put  in,  the  tank  being  cleaned  out  once  or 
twice  during  the  week. 

After  the  non-cellulose  matters,  extracted  from  the 
plant  substances  during  the  boiling,  have  been  burned 
up  in  the  roaster,  the  soda,  owing  to  the  oxygen  and 
carbon  which  it  has  taken  up  during  the  calcination, 
and  prior  to  that,  during  the  boiling,  has  become  con- 
verted into  sodium  carbonate.  The  action  of  the  water 
in  the  lixiviation  tanks  has  simply  separated  the 
sodium  carbonate  from  the  insoluble  impurities ;  and 
before  the  liquor  thus  obtained  can  be  substituted  for 
the  caustic  soda  bought  from  the  chemical  manufac- 
turer, it  must  be  converted  from  the  carbonated  to  the 


1 84  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

caustic  state.     The  following  equation  shows  how  that 
chemical  change  is  effected  : — 

Carbonate  of  soda.  Lime  water.  Caustic  soda.        Carbonate  of  lime. 

Na,CO3        +        CaO  +  H2O       =     2  NaOH      +        CaCO3 

46  +   12  +  48  +  40  +   l6  +  2  +    l6  =  46  +  32  +  2  +  40  +    12  +  48 

106       +       56       +      18         =80  +  ioo 

A  glance  at  the  figures  will  show  that  56  parts  of 
lime  are  required  to  convert  106  parts  of  carbonate 
of  soda  into  the  caustic  state,  and  that  the  amount  of 
caustic  produced  from  these  quantities  does  not  exceed 
80  parts.  In  actual  practice  the  yield  of  caustic  soda 
is  less  than  the  theoretical  quantity,  owing  to  propor- 
tions retained  in  the  lime  mud. 

In  some  mills  this  causticising  process  is  conducted 
in  circular  tanks,  or  boilers,  fitted  with  agitators,  to 
ensure  the  thorough  contact  of  the  lime  with  the  liquor 
to  be  causticised.  The  liquor  from  the  lixiviation  store 
tanks  is  run  into  the  boiler  and  generally  reduced  to 
between  20°  and  22°  Twaddle.  This  reduction  is  ren- 
dered necessary  owing  to  the  fact  that  a  strong  solution 
of  sodium  carbonate  would  react  on  the  caustic  first 
formed,  and  so  retard  the  operation. 

The  boiler  having  been  filled  to  the  usual  height, 
the  steam  is  turned  on,  and  the  lime  put  into  a  small 
cage  fitted  to  the  side  of  the  boiler  in  such  a  position 
that  the  lime  is  immersed  in  the  liquor.  As  the 
reaction  proceeds  the  lime  is  gradually  taken  up  by 
the  carbonic  acid  of  the  carbonate  of  soda  to  form  the 
lime  carbonate,  left  as  the  sediment  in  the  boiler,  while 


CAUSTICISING.  185 

the  soda  unites  with  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  ot  the 
water  to  form  caustic  soda. 

To  ascertain  when  the  reaction  has  been  completed, 
and  all  the  soda  present  as  carbonate  converted  into 
caustic,  a  little  of  the  liquor  is  lifted  out,  and,  after 
allowing  the  lime  to  settle,  is  treated  with  a  solution 
of  equal  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water. 

If  there  be  any  effervescence,  due  to  the  escape  of 
carbonic  acid  still  uncombined  with  the  lime,  the 
reaction  is  not  complete.  Either  the  lime  added  has 
not  been  sufficient  to  combine  with  all  the  carbonic 
acid  present  in  the  carbonate  of  soda,  and  more  must 
be  added,  or  sufficient  time  has  not  been  allowed  to 
complete  the  reaction.  Should  no  effervescence  take 
place  on  the  addition  of  the  testing  solution,  all  the 
sodium  carbonate  has  been  converted  into  caustic  soda. 

When  the  washing  water  from  the  boilers  is  used 
to  bring  the  liquor  to  the  desired  strength,  more  lime 
will  require  to  be  added  in  order  to  combine  with  the 
carbonic  acid  present  in  the  washings ;  and  even  then 
the  caustic  liquor  will  be  apt  to  froth  on  being  tested, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  uncombined  carbonic  acid. 
After  the  reaction  is  finished  the  agitator  should  be 
shut  out  and  the  lime  allowed  to  settle  before  the  lye 
is  drawn  off. 

About  an  hour  is  required  for  this ;  and,  after  the 
lye  has  been  run  to  the  tanks  from  which  the  supply 
for  the  boiler  is  drawn,  the  lime  mud  is  again  agitated 
and  boiled  for  about  an  hour,  when  the  liquor  obtained, 


1 86  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

after  settling,  is  also  run  to  the  store  tank.  The  weak 
liquor  drained  from  the  lime  mud  should  be  used  to 
conduct  this  second  extraction,  which  should  stand 
about  6°  to  8°  Twaddle. 

Should  a  third  liquor  be  taken  off  it  is  better  not 
to  boil  it,  but  only  to  bring  it  to  boiling  point,  and 
then  shut  off  the  steam ;  as  when  boiled  for  the  third 
time  the  lime  mud  becomes  pasty,  and,  in  addition  to 
retaining  caustic,  is  difficult  to  drain. 

By  running  up  a  boiler  with  the  drainings  from  the 
lime,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  for  about  twelve  to  fifteen 
hours,  a  caustic  solution  standing  about  10°  Twaddle 
can  be  obtained.  Before  settling  it  should  be  allowed 
to  mix  for  an  hour  or  so. 

In  order  to  oxidise  the  sulphur  compounds,  princi- 
pally the  sodium  sulphide,  which  have  been  formed 
by  the  action  of  the  sulphur  contained  in  the  coal, 
a  strong  current  of  air  is  sometimes  blown  into  the 
boiler  during  the  causticising.  In  addition  to  oxidising 
the  sodium  sulphide  to  sulphate,  it  has  the  effect  of 
producing  a  much  more  thorough  agitation  of  the  lime 
and  the  soda. 

When  the  causticising  vessel  consists  of  the  egg- 
shaped  boiler,  which  is  preferred  by  many  paper- 
makers,  the  agitation  is  maintained  by  means  of  the 
steam  (and  air,  when  the  air-blast  is  employed)  issuing 
from  small  holes  in  an  iron  pipe  laid  along  the  bottom 
of  the  boiler.  Very  much  better  results  are  said  to 
be  obtained  when  using  this  form  of  boiler. 


FERRIC  OXIDE    PROCESS.  187 

Though  the  aluminate  and  silicate  of  soda  present 
in  the  recovered  liquor  are,  to  a  large  extent,  decom- 
posed during  the  causticising  process,  a  considerable 
amount  of  soda  is  retained  in  combination  with  these 
compounds,  and  thus  rendered  unavailable. 

In  causticising  liquor  obtained  from  the  spent  lye 
in  which  straw  has  been  boiled  the  loss  arising  from 
this  cause  is  very  considerable,  owing  to  the  large 
proportion  of  silica  in  combination  with  the  soda.  It 
is  claimed  that  by  treating  the  recovered  liquor  with 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  prior  to  causticising,  the  aluminate 
and  silicate  of  soda  are  decomposed,  with  the  result 
that  practically  the  whole  of  the  soda  held  in  combi- 
bination  is  set  free,  while  the  sodium  sulphide  is  also 
decomposed. 

The  soda  added  as  bicarbonate  is  available,  and  as 
much  as  1 1  per  cent,  of  alkali  can,  it  is  said,  be  saved 
by  employing  this  method.  The  plan  recommended 
by  the  advocates  of  this  system  is  to  boil  the  liquor 
to  which  the  bicarbonate  has  been  added  for  a  quarter 
or  half  an  hour  before  adding  the  usual  amount  of 
lime. 

In  place  of  causticising  by  means  of  lime,  ferric  oxide 
may  be  used  as  a  causticising  agent.  This  process 
possesses  a  distinct  advantage  over  the  lime  method  in 
that  the  caustic  solution  is  obtained  in  a  concentrated 
form  direct  from  the  lixiviation  tanks. 

The  rationale  of  the  process  consists  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  carbonic  acid  from  the  recovered  ash  when  fused 


l88  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

with  ferric  oxide.  The  sodium  ferrate  thus  formed  is 
decomposed  during  the  lixiviation  with  the  formation  of 
caustic  soda  solution  and  ferric  oxide,  which  is  thus 
available  to  causticise  a  second  charge  of  soda  ash.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  the  ferric  oxide,  owing  to  this 
regeneration,  is  continuously  available. 

This  process,  notwithstanding  its  advantages,  is  more 
suited  to  the  needs  of  the  chemical  manufacturer  than 
to  the  requirements  of  the  paper-maker. 

Multiple  Effects, — During  recent  years  the  principle 
of  multiple  effects,  seen  in  its  simplest  form  in  the 
evaporator  of  the  Porion  type,  has  been  made  the 
basis  of  several  new  systems  of  evaporation.  The 
principle  of  multiple  effects,  as  applied  to  evaporation, 
is  dependent  on  the  fact  that  the  boiling  point  of  a 
liquid  is  lowered  in  proportion  as  the  pressure  exerted 
on  its  surface  is  diminished. 

This  is  the  reason  why  the  temperature  required  to 
boil  water  at  the  top  of  a  hill  is  less  than  that  found 
necessary  at  the  bottom,  where  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure exerted  on  its  surface  is  greater  than  that  to 
which  it  is  subjected  at  the  greater  height. 

Under  the  normal  atmospheric  pressure  of  147  Ibs. 
per  square  inch,  the  temperature  at  which  water  boils 
is  212°  Fahr. ;  and  by  lowering  the  pressure  in  the 
chamber  in  which  the  evaporation  is  conducted,  by 
means  of  a  vacuum  artificially  produced  and  main- 
tained;  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  number  of 


MULTIPLE  EFFECTS.  189 

degrees  of  heat  necessary  to  effect  the  conversion  of 
the  liquid  into  steam  can  be  effected. 

Thus  under  a  vacuum  of  5  inches  =12  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  of  surface  pressure,  the  temperature  at 
which  water  will  boil  is  195°  Fahr. ;  10  inches  vacuum 
represents  185°  Fahr.,  15  inches  160°  Fahr.,  and  at 
20  inches  the  temperature  is  reduced  to  150°  Fahr. 
The  efficiency  of  the  multiple  effects  evaporator  is, 
however,  largely  dependent  on  another  peculiarity 
connected  with  the  boiling  of  liquids — namely,  the 
utilisation  of  the  latent  heat  contained  in  the  vapour 
given  off  when  water  is  converted  into  steam. 

Each  pound  of  water  converted  into  steam  at 
atmospheric  pressure  absorbs  1,146  heat  units,  but 
about  965  of  these  units  have  been  absorbed  in 
producing  the  molecular  change  from  water  into  steam, 
and  when  the  steam  is  again  brought  into  contact  with 
water  at  a  lower  temperature,  it  yields  up  these  latent 
heat  units,  with  the  result  that  the  temperature  of  the 
liquid  in  contact  is  raised ;  and  if,  as  in  the  case  of 
a  vacuum  evaporator,  the  surface  pressure  be  lowered 
in  the  proper  degree,  it  becomes  possible  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  liquid  by  means  of  the  latent  heat 
to  the  boiling-point  required  under  the  lowered  pressure, 
and  again  utilise  the  latent  heat  of  the  vapour  thus 
produced  to  raise  a  further  quantity  of  liquor  under 
a  still  lower  pressure  to  boiling-point. 

In  the  multiple  effects  evaporator,  the  vapour  from  a 
liquid  boiling  under  normal  pressure  is  made  to  boil 


190  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

a  second  portion  of  the  liquid,  the  pressure  upon  the 
surface  of  which  has  been  diminished  by  means  of  a 
vacuum  pump.  By  further  reducing  the  resistance  of 
the  pressure  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere  a  third 
portion  of  the  liquid  may  be  brought  to  boiling  point. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  number  of  effects  is 
dependent  on  the  vacuum  which  can  be  obtained  in  the 
evaporators. 

In  the  system  known  as  the  Yaryan,  the  spent  lyes 
are  made  to  flow  through  a  system  of  pipes  inclosed 
in  an  egg-shaped  boiler  or  shell,  into  which  the  steam 
for  conducting  the  evaporation  is  led.  As  the  liquor 
flows  through  the  pipes,  it  is  concentrated  by  the  heat 
from  the  steam  playing  round  them ;  and  at  the  end  of 
each  effect  it  is  made  to  flow  into  a  special  chamber, 
in  which  the  separation  of  the  concentrated  lye  and 
the  steam  produced  by  the  concentration  is  effected. 

On  leaving  the  separator,  the  liquor  and  steam  are 
conducted  through  separate  pipes  to  the  next  effect ;  in 
which  the  former  is,  through  the  agency  of  the  latter, 
still  further  concentrated. 

In  a  quadruple-effect  evaporator  the  steam  pressure 
is  maintained  at  20  Ibs.  per  square  inch  in  the  first 
effect,  by  means  of  steam  supplied  direct  from  the 
steam  boilers.  The  steam  from  the  separator  of  this 
effect  enters  the  second  effect  at  a  pressure  of  1 1  Ibs. 
per  square  inch,  and  after  effecting  the  concentration 
passes  on  to  the  third  effect  at  a  pressure  of  5  Ibs. 
To  carry  out  the  concentration  with  this  pressure  a 


YARYAN  EVAPORATOR.  191 

vacuum  of  17  in.,  equal  to  about  8J  Ibs.,  is  maintained. 

In  the  fourth  effect  the  vacuum  is  further  increased 
to  about  24  in.  With  the  apparatus  described,  lyes 
entering  the  first  effect  at  from  8°  to  10°  Twaddle  are 
concentrated  to  between  40°  and  44°  on  issuing  from 
the  last  effect. 

Apart  altogether  from  the  expense  connected  with 
the  fitting  up  and  upkeep  of  such  a  system  as  the 
Yaryan,  it  is  very  doubtful  if  it  can  hold  its  own  when 
compared  with  the  evaporator  of  the  Porion  type. 
With  the  latter,  liquors  standing  from  8°  to  IO°  Twaddle 
can,  under  the  ordinary  conditions  of  working,  be  con- 
centrated to  40°. 

Another  serious  drawback  connected  with  the  Yaryan 
is  the  difficulty  experienced  in  cleaning  out  the  tubes. 
The  deposit  which  gathers  on  the  inside  of  the  tubes 
is  so  extremely  hard  that  it  can  only  be  removed  by 
means  of  long  and  tedious  scraping. 

Very  good  results  are  said  to  be  obtained  from  the 
Chapman  and  Fawcett  multiple  effect  evaporator,  which 
is  somewhat  similar  in  principle  to  the  Yaryan.  It  is 
capable  of  dealing  with  liquors  at  from  2°  to  4° 
Twaddle,  and  of  concentrating  them  to  from  44° 
to  46°  with  economical  results. 

In  the  Gaunt  multiple  effect  evaporator,  which  is 
largely  used  in  American  mills  for  the  evaporation 
of  soda  liquors  from  wood  pulp  boiling,  the  liquors 
are  made  to  flow  over  a  series  of  pipes  through  which 
the  steam  is  conducted,  and  the  liability  to  choking  up, 


192  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

which  is  such  a  drawback  to  the  systems  in  which  the 
concentrated  liquors  flow  through  the  pipes,  is  thus 
obviated. 

The  first  effect  is  usually  supplied  with  live  steam 
under  pressure,  and  the  steam  given  off  by  the  liquor 
in  contact  with  the  heated  tubes  is  led  to  the  second 
effect,  and  utilised  to  further  concentrate  the  liquor 
from  which  it  has  been  driven  off  in  the  first  effect. 

As  in  the  Yaryan,  the  number  of  effects  employed 
depends  on  the  density  and  volume  of  the  liquors  to 
be  dealt  with,  and  the  fact  that  it  becomes  difficult 
to  maintain  a  circulation  when  the  liquor  reaches  the 
neighbourhood  of  40°  Fahr. 

The  Scott  Multiple  Effect, — In  principle,  the  Scott 
recovery  plant  varies  little  from  the  other  well-known 
types,  quadruple  effect  being  the  usual  form  of  in- 
stallation, although  other  numbers  of  effects  are  installed 
according  to  the  steam  supply  available  and  the  volume 
of  liquor  to  be  treated. 

The  heating  surface  is  arranged  in  series  of  2  in. 
and  4  in.  tubes,  a  number  of  2  in.  tubes  being  placed 
round  each  4  in.  tube,  so  that  the  latter  may  draw 
down  from  the  top  of  the  pan  the  liquor  which  has 
been  thrown  into  it  by  the  2  in.  tubes.  The  number 
of  2  in.  tubes  is  generally  about  fifty  to  one  4  in.  tube, 
but  this  varies  according  to  the  number  of  effects. 

The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the  liquor 
travels  so  rapidly  over  the  heating  surface — while  at 


SCOTT  MULTIPLE  EFFECT.  193 

the  same  time  keeping  the  tubes  full  of  liquor — that 
deposition  on  the  tubes  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and 
they  require  comparatively  little  cleaning. 

Other  things  being  equal,  this  freedom  from  liability 
to  choke  up  is  a  very  valuable  feature,  as  the 
cleaning  and  replacing  of  choked  tubes  is  a  very 
considerable  item  in  the  cost  of  upkeep  of  a  multiple 
effect  evaporator. 

In  comparing  the  results  obtained  from  different 
forms  of  evaporators  and  roasters,  the  strength  and 
uniformity  of  the  lyes  are  too  often  overlooked,  and 
consequently  a  false  opinion  of  the  merits  of  the 
systems  compared  is  obtained.  For  instance,  a  roaster 
working  when  only  the  first  liquors  and  washings  are 
evaporated  will  show  much  better  results  than  could 
be  obtained  from  the  same  form  of  roaster  when  two 
washings  have  to  be  burned. 

Again,  when  a  considerable  quantity  ot  rag  lye  has 
to  be  evaporated,  especially  if  it  be  from  the  better 
grades,  the  amount  of  coal  consumed  will  be  much 
larger  in  proportion  to  the  turnout  of  soda,  than  would 
be  the  case  in  roasting  an  equal  quantity  of  lye  from 
esparto  or  straw. 

The  Warren  Kotary  Furnace. — During  recent  years 
the  introduction  of  the  Warren  rotary  furnace  has 
made  it  possible  to  effect  the  incineration  of  the  con- 
centrated liquors  more  expeditiously,  and  with  greater 
economy,  than  is  possible  with  the  furnace  or  pan  of 

13 


194  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

the  Porion  type.  Its  merits  were  quickly  recognised 
in  American  mills,  with  the  result  that  it  has  been 
largely  introduced  in  conjunction  with  multiple  effect 
evaporators. 

The  fire-box,  which  is  of  the  usual  type,  is  so  arranged 
that  it  can  be  drawn  forwards  to  allow  of  easy  access 
to  the  furnace  proper. 

The  furnace  consists  of  a  cast  iron  casing  lined 
with  firebricks,  similar  to  the  rotary  kilns  used  in 
cement  manufacture,  being  conical  in  shape,  with  the 
larger  end  towards  the  fire-box.  The  rotary  move- 
ment is  obtained  by  means  of  worm-and-screw  gearing, 
which  drives  the  wheels  into  which  work  two  iron 
rails  fixed  round  the  outside  of  the  furnace. 

By  a  very  ingenious  arrangement  the  throat  of  the 
furnace  is  protected  by  a  water-jacket,  which,  however, 
is  filled  with  liquor  from  the  feed  tank,  and  by  a 
suitable  arrangement  of  pipes  the  concentrated  liquor 
is  driven  upwards  on  becoming  heated,  and  replaced 
by  a  continuous  flow  of  cooler  liquor.  The  liquor 
already  concentrated  to  about  40°  Twaddle  is  run  into 
the  end  of  the  furnace  farthest  from  the  fire-box,  and, 
coming  into  contact  with  the  flames,  is  at  once  ignited, 
and  before  it  has  reached  the  lower  end  the  organic 
matters  are  completely  burnt  up,  with  the  result  that 
the  black  ash  which  drops  out  in  a  continuous  stream 
from  the  opening  under  the  protecting  jacket  is  ready 
for  the  lixiviator. 


CHAPTER  XVL 

TESTING  OF  CHEMICALS.— TESTING   WATER  FOR 
IMPURITIES. 

Caustic  and  Recovered  Soda. — The  amount  of  actual 
soda  (Na2O)  present  in  caustic  and  recovered  soda  is 
determined  by  means  of  the  reaction  with  a  solution 
of  standard  sulphuric  acid.  This  standard  or  normal 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid  may  be  prepared  in  the 
following  manner. 

Strong  sulphuric  acid  is  diluted  with  water  in  a 
porcelain  basin  until  the  solution  stands  about  6° 
Twaddle.  After  the  acid  and  water  have  been 
thoroughly  mixed  together,  a  sufficient  quantity  is 
withdrawn  to  fill  a  50  c.c.  burette  to  the  zero  mark. 
To  ascertain  if  this  solution  is  normal  ro6  grams  of 
pure  dried  sodium  carbonate  are  dissolved  in  boiling 
water  in  a  small  flask,  and  coloured  with  a  few  drops 
of  litmus.  The  acid  solution  is  then  allowed  to  flow  into 
this  soda  solution  until  the  blue  colour  is  discharged. 

As  the  acid  is  being  run  in,  the  flask  should  from 
time  to  time  be  shaken  with  a  circular  motion  so  as  to 
ensure  that  the  point  when  the  reaction  is  complete 

195 


196  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

may  be  the  more  quickly  determined.  When  the 
solution  in  the  flask  begins  to  take  on  a  slightly  purple 
tinge  the  flow  should  be  checked  until  it  merely  drops 
slowly,  and  the  flask  gently  shaken  until  the  appearance 
of  a  faint  violet  colour  shows  that  the  soda  originally 
present  is  neutralised  by  the  acid,  when  the  cock  should 
be  shut,  and  the  number  of  c.c.  run  off  carefully  noted. 

To  ensure  that  the  discharging  of  the  blue  colour  is 
not  due  to  the  carbonic  acid  present  in  the  soda 
solution,  the  flask  should  be  placed  above  a  Bunsen 
burner  and  the  contents  boiled  for  a  few  minutes,  when 
in  all  likelihood  the  blue  colour  will  be  restored,  owing 
to  the  expulsion  of  carbonic  acid. 

More  of  the  acid  must  then  be  added,  drop  by  drop, 
until  the  red  colour  is  permanent  after  boiling.  If  the 
solution  is  normal  exactly  20  c.c.  will  be  required  to  do 
this.  Should  more  be  necessary  it  is  too  weak,  and 
more  of  the  strong  acid  will  require  to  be  added  to  the 
contents  of  the  basin  and  vigorously  stirred  before 
another  quantity  for  testing  is  withdrawn. 

Should  less  than  20  c.c.  be  sufficient  to  complete  the 
reaction,  more  water  will  require  to  be  added  to  bring  it 
to  the  desired  strength,  which  may  not  be  arrived  at 
until  several  testings  have  been  made.  For  greater 
accuracy  2- 12  grams  may  be  taken,  and  in  that  case 
40  c.c.  will  be  required  to  turn  the  litmus  red 
permanently  after  boiling. 

When  the  solution  has  been  brought  to  the  exact 
strength  it  should  be  transferred  to  a  large  wide- 


TESTING   RECOVERED   SODA.  197 

mouthed,  well-stoppered  bottle,  which  should  then  be 
labelled  "  Standard  Sulphuric  Acid  I  c.c.  —  "031  gram 
Na2O." 

To  carry  out  the  actual  test  a  small  quantity — about 
2  grams  is  a  convenient  amount — of  an  average 
sample  of  the  soda  to  be  tested  is  accurately  weighed 
out  and  boiled  with  water  in  a  flask  until  all  that  is 
soluble  is  dissolved.  When  testing  recovered  soda  the 
sample  should  be  reduced  to  powder,  by  passing  it 
through  a  small  coffee  grinder,  so  that  the  portion 
weighed  out  may  be  as  uniform  as  possible ;  and,  after 
boiling,  the  contents  of  the  flask  should  be  poured  on 
to  a  filter,  and  the  insoluble  portion  well  washed,  the 
washings  being  run  into  the  flask  containing  the  filtrate. 

The  solution  in  the  flask  is  then  coloured  with  a 
few  drops  of  litmus,  and  treated  with  the  standard 
sulphuric  acid  solution,  in  the  same  way  as  when 
testing  the  standard  acid,  until  it  is  turned  permanently 
red  after  boiling.  The  number  of  c.c.  required  to 
accomplish  this  is  multiplied  by  "03 1 ;  the  result  is  then 
multiplied  by  IOO  and  divided  by  the  weight  of  soda 
taken,  in  order  to  give  the  percentage  of  total  alkali. 

Example. — 2  grams  of  recovered  soda  were  accurately 
weighed  out  and  dissolved  with  water,  in  a  small  glass 
flask,  until  all  the  soluble  portion  was  extracted.  A 
few  drops  of  litmus  were  added  to  the  clear  solution, 
and  then  the  standard  acid  run  in,  until  the  blue  colour 
was  discharged. 

The  contents  of  the  flask  were  then  boiled  and  the 


1 98  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

blue  colour  restored,  owing  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
carbonic  acid.  The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of 
the  acid  solution  again  discharged  the  blue  colour, 
and  the  red  tint  was  permanent  after  boiling  for  a 
few  minutes.  Exactly  29  c.c.  of  the  acid  had  been  run 
off;  accordingly — 

29  x  -031  =  -899  x  loo  =  89-9  -f  2  =  44-95  per  cent. 

By  weighing  out  3*1  grams  of  the  soda,  this  calcula- 
tion may  be  dispensed  with,  as  the  number  of  c.c. 
required  indicate  the  percentage. 

When  testing  caustic  soda  for  total  alkali  the 
weighing  must  be  conducted  as  expeditiously  as 
possible,  as  the  soda  in  the  caustic  form  is  highly 
deliquescent.  A  good  plan  is  to  place  the  piece  to  be 
weighed  in  a  small  glass  beaker,  the  weight  of  which 
has  already  been  accurately  determined;  the  increase 
represents  the  weight  of  soda  taken. 

It  is  better  to  select  an  average  sample,  which  will 
be  near  the  weight  usually  taken,  than  to  attempt  to 
weigh  out  a  stated  quantity,  as  the  time  taken  before 
the  weight  can  be  brought  to  the  proper  amount 
allows  of  a  considerable  absorption,  both  of  moisture 
and  carbonic  acid,  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 

As  the  caustic  burns  the  fingers  when  handled,  a 
small  pair  of  brass  forceps  or  tongs  should  always  be 
used  to  lift  the  pieces  when  weighing. 

Example. — Weight  of  beaker,  22-35  grams;  weight 
of  beaker  and  caustic,  23-80  grams;  weight  of  caustic, 


COMMERCIAL    CAUSTIC  SODA.  199 

I -45  grams.     32*2  c.c.  of  standard  acid  were  required 
to  neutralise  completely. 

•0082  x  100      ,0  0  -T    ~ 

32*2  x  -031  =—        =  68-84  Per  cent.  Na2O. 

r45 

The  different  grades  of  caustic  soda  met  with  in  the 
market  are  classed  according  to  the  percentage  of  actual 
soda — Na2O — which  they  contain.  The  lowest  grade 
is  designated  by  the  suggestive  name  of  "bottoms," 
and  usually  contains  about  55  per  cent,  total  alkali. 
It  is  so  named,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  obtained 
from  the  residue  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  pan  in  which 
the  concentration  has  been  conducted,  and  therefore 
contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of  impurities  than 
the  other  grades.  The  impurities  consist  mainly  of 
iron,  and  impart  to  it  a  brown  colour. 

The  two  forms  of  60  per  cent,  soda  are  named  cream 
and  white  respectively,  owing  to  the  characteristic 
cream  colour  of  the  former.  The  white  caustic  is  ob- 
tained by  prolonging  the  concentration  until  all  the 
moisture  is  driven  off,  and  then  fusing  with  nitre,  in 
order  to  remove  the  impurities  which  are  the  source  of 
the  creamy  colour.  This  concentration  has  the  effect 
of  increasing  the  percentage  of  soda,  and  in  order  to 
bring  it  back  to  the  desired  strength  it  is  treated  with 
sodium  chloride  (common  salt). 

The  grades  which  present  the  greatest  freedom  from 
impurities,  together  with  the  highest  percentage  of 
total  alkali,  are  those  sold  as  70  and  77  per  cent. ;  but 
notwithstanding  the  high  degree  of  purity  and  conden- 


200  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

sation  arrived  at  in  those  grades,  they  usually  contain 
a  small  portion  of  their  bulk  in  the  carbonated  state. 

In  all  probability  the  cost  of  caustic  soda  will,  within 
a  comparatively  short  space  of  time,  be  greatly  reduced, 
and  with  it  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  price  of 
bleaching  powder  will  doubtless  take  place.  This  may 
be  confidently  expected,  owing  to  the  introduction  of 
the  electrolytic  manufacture  of  alkali. 

It  has  been  estimated  from  the  results  obtained  by 
the  recently  fitted-up  plant,  in  connection  with  Messrs. 
Holland  and  Richardson's  electrolytic  soda  process, 
that,  worked  on  a  large  scale,  I  ton  of  caustic  soda  and 
2j  tons  of  bleach  can  be  produced  at  a  cost  to  the 
consumer  of  about  £>i$. 

Compared  with  £g  per  ton  for  bleaching  powder  and 
about  £10  per  ton  for  70  per  cent,  caustic,  which  prices 
are  current  and  likely  to  remain  so  under  the  old 
methods  of  manufacture,  the  advantage  to  the  con- 
sumer is  enormous. 

Alum, — Before  proceeding  to  determine  the  amount 
of  alumina  contained  in  a  sample  of  alum,  the  water  of 
crystallisation  with  which  it  is  combined  must  first 
be  driven  off.  This  is  accomplished  by  placing  a 
small  quantity  of  the  sample  in  a  porcelain  basin,  and 
evaporating  over  the  water-bath  until  the  weight  is 
constant. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  alumina,  about  one 
gram  of  the  sample  treated  as  described  is  dissolved 


TESTING   ALUM   AND   ANTICHLOR.  2OI 

with  hot  water  in  a  porcelain  dish.  A  small  quantity 
of  ammonium  chloride  solution,  together  with  a  slight 
excess  of  ammonia,  is  now  added,  and  the  whole  boiled 
gently  until  the  alumina  has  been  precipitated.  The 
contents  of  the  dish  are  then  poured  on  to  a  filter  and 
well  washed  with  hot  water,  after  which  the  precipitate 
is  placed  in  a  platinum  crucible,  which  has  been 
previously  weighed,  and  heated  over  the  blowpipe 
flame,  in  order  to  expel  the  water  still  retained.  After 
cooling  the  crucible  is  again  weighed;  the  increase 
represents  the  amount  of  alumina  present  in  the  sample. 
The  presence  of  iron  may  be  detected  by  treating  a 
small  quantity  of  the  alum  to  be  tested  with  an  excess  of 
pure  caustic  potash.  The  alum,  or  sulphate  of  alumina, 
is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  when  brought  to  boiling 
point  the  caustic  potash  is  added,  and  the  ebullition 
kept  up  for  a  few  minutes.  Should  iron  be  present  it 
will  separate  out  as  a  brown  flocculent  precipitate. 

Antichlor. — The  actual  amount  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda  present  in  the  commercial  article  is  determined 
by  means  of  the  reaction  with  a  solution  of  iodine. 
The  iodine  solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
127  grams  of  pure  iodine  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water,  in  which  about  18  grams  of  potassium  iodide 
have  already  been  dissolved.  The  water  must  be  cold, 
and  as  soon  as  all  the  iodine  has  gone  into  solution, 
the  flask  should  be  filled  to  the  litre  mark. 

As  one  litre  contains  1000  c.c.,  I  c.c.  of  a  solution 


202  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

prepared  in  this  way  is  equal  to  "0248  gram  of  the 
crystallised  hyposulphite  of  soda,  or  '0158  gram  of 
the  anhydrous  salt,  and  therefore  the  solution  is 
said  to  be  deci-normal.  In  order  to  render  the  point 
where  the  reaction  has  been  completed  the  more 
easily  determined,  a  small  quantity  of  starch  solution 
is  usually  added  to  the  dissolved  hyposulphite  before 
running  in  the  iodine  solution.  The  starch  solution 
is  prepared  by  dissolving  about  I  gram  of  powdered 
starch  in  about  200  c.c.  of  water,  and  decanting 
into  a  small  stoppered  bottle. 

The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  glycerine  to 
the  clear  solution  thus  obtained  helps  to  keep  it 
fresh  for  a  greater  length  of  time  ;  but  as  it  can  be 
prepared  without  difficulty,  it  is  better  to  make  a 
fresh  supply  each  time  a  test  has  to  be  made. 

To  carry  out  the  actual  testing,  24*8  grams  of  the 
crystallised  hyposulphite  are  accurately  weighed  out, 
and  having  been  dissolved  in  hot  water,  are  trans- 
ferred to  a  litre  flask,  which  is  then  filled  to  the 
mark.  After  shaking  the  flask  well,  100  c.c.  are 
withdrawn,  by  means  of  a  pipette,  and  run  into  a 
small  flask,  to  the  contents  of  which  a  small  quantity 
of  the  starch  solution  is  then  added.  From  a  burette 
already  filled  with  the  iodine  solution,  the  dissolved 
hyposulphite  in  the  flask  is  treated  until  the  charac- 
teristic blue  colour,  resulting  from  the  action  of  the 
iodine  on  the  starch,  is  no  longer  discharged. 

When   this   point   is    reached   the    iodine   has   de- 


TESTING   BLEACHING   POWDER.  203 

composed  the  whole  of  the  hyposulphite,  and  is 
now  present  in  excess.  When  the  final  point  in 
the  reaction  is  nearly  reached,  the  cock  of  the 
burette  should  be  closed  so  as  to  admit  of  the  iodine 
solution  entering  the  flask  drop  by  drop,  otherwise 
the  actual  percentage  may  be  over-estimated.  The 
number  of  c.c.  of  the  iodine  required  to  neutralise  the 
hyposulphite  indicate  the  percentage  amount  of  the 
latter  present  in  the  sample. 

When  testing  sodium  sulphite,  6*3  grams  of  the 
anhydrous  salt  will  require  to  be  weighed  out,  after 
which  the  operation  is  conducted  as  in  the  case  of 
the  hyposulphite. 

Bleaching  Powder. — The  amount  of  available  chlorine 
present  in  bleaching  powder  is  usually  ascertained  by 
means  of  a  deci-normal  solution  of  arsenious  acid. 
The  arsenious  acid  solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
4'95  grams  of  pure  sublimed  arsenious  acid  (free  from 
arsenic  sulphide),  to  which  about  25  grams  recrystallised 
sodium  carbonate  (free  from  sodium  sulphide,  sulphite 
or  hyposulphite)  have  been  added,  by  boiling  with 
water  in  a  flask,  and  then  diluting  with  water  to  I  litre. 
As  I  equivalent  of  arsenious  acid  is  equal  to  4  equiva- 
lents of  chlorine,  I  c.c.  of  this  solution  is,  according  to 
the  following  calculation,  equal  to  '0035  5  gram  chlorine  :— 

As2O3  :  As2O3  :  :  Cl 
198        4'9S-        35'5  X  4  =  142  =  3-55  grams  chlorine. 

Each  of  the  1000  c.c.  contained  in  the  litre  thus  equals 
*°°355  gram  chlorine. 


204  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

In  order  to  prevent  any  alteration  in  the  solution 
through  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  it  should  be 
poured  into  small  stoppered  bottles  and  kept  corked 
until  required. 

To  prepare  the  sample  of  bleaching  powder  for  test- 
ing, 3*55  grams  are  accurately  weighed  out,  rubbed 
into  a  thin  cream  with  water  in  a  porcelain  mortar,  and 
transferred  to  a  500  c.c.  flask,  which  is  then  filled  to 
the  mark.  The  flask  is  then  well  shaken,  and  50  c.c.  of 
the  turbid  solution  withdrawn,  and  run  into  a  small 
beaker,  which  is  then  placed  below  the  burette,  already 
filled  to  the  zero  mark  with  the  arsenious  acid  solution. 

The  contents  of  the  beaker  are  constantly  stirred  by 
means  of  a  glass  rod,  while  the  arsenious  acid  is 
running  in,  and  from  time  to  time  a  drop  from  the 
beaker  is  lifted  out  with  this  rod  and  placed  on  a  little 
of  the  potassium  iodide  and  starch  solution,  which  has 
been  spread  over  a  porcelain  slab. 

So  long  as  any  of  the  hypochlorite  remains  unde- 
composed  by  the  arsenious  acid,  a  blue  stain,  owing  to 
the  chlorine  still  present  setting  free  the  iodine  in  the 
potassium  iodide  to  combine  with  the  starch,  will  be 
produced ;  but  whenever  all  the  oxygen  of  the  hypo- 
chlorite has  been  taken  up  by  the  arsenious  acid,  and 
the  chlorine  set  free  to  combine  with  the  calcium  as 
calcium  chloride,  the  blue  stain  will  no  longer  be  pro- 
duced. The  number  of  c.c.  required  to  complete  the 
reaction  represent  the  percentage  of  available  chlorine 
present  in  the  sample,  usually  about  35  per  cent. 


TESTING    LIME    MUD. 


205 


The  percentage  of  available  chlorine  present  in  the 
bleaching  liquor,  or  in  the  drainings  from  the  bleaching- 
house  presses  and  tanks,  can  be  determined  in  the 
same  way,  as  each  c.c.  of  the  arsenious  acid  used  equals 
•00355  gram  of  chlorine,  as  before  stated. 

Should  it  be  suspected  that  the  lime  mud  contains 
chlorine,  a  small  portion  of  it  should  be  stirred  up  with 
water  to  a  fixed  specific  gravity,  and  then  tested  in  the 
same  way  as  the  bleaching  powder,  In  this  way  the 
amount  of  chlorine  retained  by  the  mud  from  different 
makes  can  be  at  once  determined  by  comparison. 


Several  useful  Tables  may  be  given  here : — 

TABLE  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE  AMOUNT  OF  SODA  (NA2O)  IN  AQUEOUS 
SOLUTIONS  OF  VARIOUS  SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  AT  I5°C.  (TUNNERMAN). 


Sp.  gr. 

Per  cent. 

Sp.  gr. 

Per  cent. 

Sp.  gr. 

Per  cent. 

Sp.  gr. 

Percent. 

1-4285 

30-220 

•3198 

22-363 

•2392 

I5-IIO 

1-1042 

7-253 

I^IQS 

29-616 

•3143 

21-894 

•2280 

14-500 

I  -0948 

6-648 

1-4101 

29-011 

•3125 

21758 

•2178 

13-901 

1-0855 

6-044 

I  '401  1 

28-407 

•3053 

21-154 

•2058 

13-297 

1-0764 

5-440 

I-3923 

27-802 

•2982 

20-550 

•I948 

12-692 

1-0675 

4-835 

1-3836 

27-200 

•2912 

I9-945 

•1841 

12-088 

1-0587 

4-231 

I'375I 

26-594 

•2843 

19-341 

"1734 

11-484 

I  -0500 

3-626 

1-3668 

25-989 

•2775 

18-730 

•1630 

10-879 

1-0414 

3-022 

1-3586 

25-385 

•2708 

18-132 

•1528 

10-275 

1-0330 

2*418 

If3505 

24-780 

•2642 

I7-528 

•1428 

9-670 

I  -0246 

1-813 

1-3426 

24-176 

•2578 

16-923 

•133° 

9-066 

1-0163 

l'2Og 

1-3349 

23-572 

•2515 

16-379 

•1233 

8-462 

1*008  1 

0-604 

I-3273 

22-967 

•2453 

I57I4 

•1137 

7-857 

1-0040 

0-302 

206 


PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 


TABLE  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE  AMOUNT  OF  CAUSTIC  SODA  IN  AQUEOUS 
SOLUTIONS  OF  VARIOUS  SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  AT  I5°C. 


Specific  Gravity. 

Per  cent.  NaHO. 

Specific  Gravity. 

Per  cent.  NaHO. 

1-059 

5 

1-437 

40 

•"5 

10 

1-488 

45 

•170 

15 

i  '540 

50 

•225 

20 

l'$9l 

55 

•279 

25 

1-643 

60 

•332 

30 

1-695 

65 

•384 

35 

1-748 

70 

TABLE    (BASED    ON   RICHTER'S)    SHOWING    PERCENTAGE   AMOUNT   OF 
SODA  (NA2O)  IN  LYES  OF  VARIOUS  DEGREES  TWADDLE. 


Degrees  Twaddle. 

Per  cent.  Na2O. 

,  Degrees  Twaddle. 

Per  cent.  Na2O. 

4 

2-07 

44 

2O-66 

8 

4'02 

48 

22-58 

12 

5-89 

52 

24-47 

16 

7-69 

56 

26-33 

20 

9'43 

60 

28-16 

24 

Il'IO 

64 

29-96 

28 

12-81 

68 

31-67 

32 

1473 

70 

32-40 

36 

16-73 

72 

33-08 

40 

18-71 

76 

34-4I 

TESTING    WATER. 


207 


TABLE    SHOWING  STRENGTH   OF   SOLUTIONS   OF   ALUM   BY   SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY  AND  DEGREES  TWADDLE  AT  17*5°  C. 


Specific  Gravity. 

Degrees  Tv/addle. 

Per  cent. 
K2Ala(S04)4+24H2O. 

1-0065 

1-30 

I 

roiio 

2'2O 

2 

roi66 

330 

3 

ro2i8 

4'36 

4 

2-0269 

5-38 

5 

1-0320 

6  -40 

6 

To  convert  degrees  Twaddle  to  specific  gravity, 
multiply  by  5,  add  1000,  and  divide  by  1000.  To 
convert  specific  gravity  to  degrees  Twaddle,  multiply 
by  1000,  subtract  1000,  and  divide  by  5. 

Testing  Water  for  Impurities.— To  detect  the  presence 
of  the  salts  which  cause  water  to  be  hard,  a  little 
white  soap,  dissolved  in  alcohol,  should  be  added  to 
it.  If  hard,  the  water  will  at  once  assume  a  milky 
appearance,  while,  if  it  is  soft,  no  change  will  be 
observed. 

Magnesia  may  be  detected  by  the  white  precipitate 
formed  when  a  small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  ammonia 
and  phosphate  of  soda  are  added  to  a  portion  of  the 
water  which  has  been  brought  to  the  boiling  point. 

Soluble  sulphates  or  free  sulphuric  acid  are  tested 
for  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  barium  chloride,  as, 
should  either  be  present,  a  precipitate  of  barium  sul- 
phate, insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  will  at  once  be  formed. 


208  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

Carbonic  acid  may  be  detected  by  the  white  pre- 
cipitate of  carbonate  of  lime  formed  when  lime  water 
is  added  to  the  water  containing  it. 

To  detect  sulphur  compounds  a  little  mercury  should 
be  put  into  a  bottle  containing  the  water  and  allowed 
to  stand  corked  up  for  some  time.  If  there  are  any 
such  compounds  present  the  mercury  will  have  taken 
on  a  dark  colour,  and  on  shaking  will  assume  a  silver- 
grey  colour. 

The  presence  of  iron  in  water  may  be  ascertained 
by  pouring  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  nutgalls  into  a 
small  quantity  of  the  water  contained  in  a  glass  vessel. 
Should  iron  be  present  a  dark  grey  or  black  colour 
will  be  at  once  produced.  The  depth  of  the  coloration 
depends  on  the  amount  of  iron  present;  the  greater 
the  quantity  contained  the  more  intense  is  the  shade. 

Soluble  lime  impurities  may  be  detected  by  the  milky 
turbidity  produced  on  the  addition  of  one  or  two 
crystals  of  oxalic  acid  to  the  water. 


APPENDIX. 


Its    ? 

'So       x 


J2     O 
o 


"I   -tf-  I-H   -«t  i>.  O  to  O  mvO  ON  N 

~   "  M  - 

t^oO  O  «  N  ro  rfvO  t-^CO   (7*  O 


xo  TJ-  «r>  CO  N   w   « 


r^-00  oo  ON  O  «-> 


w     OO    O    W 


t^OO    O 


O   rO«-> 


OS  O   1-1   n   N    fO  ^-  "^^O  vO   t^OO   ON  O   >->   N    CO 


.2  2 


O\vO 


•^-Or^f^O  fOONioN 
t^oo  oo  O->  O  "-i 


% 

"°rtK 


2     O  « 


M     W      O 

ON  O   >-   IN 


8S33 


O          *> 


<n     Tj-  xr>\o  r^  O 
.D      Mi-ii-ii-iM 


t-H   O   ^-00   ro  w  i^  O  m  covO  O 
l>»  \^  O   ^^  ^O  *sj*  loo  00  ON  O  ^^ 


1^  t^CO  CO 


O   >->   W  '  N 


3d       N 
3  o       x 


O  <N   fO  too  OOONwiNrfO'-'tN   ^J-vO  t^  ON  O 
N   ro  T|-  10 O  r^OO  ON  O   "i  fO  **•  »OvO  t^OO   ON  O 


O  ON  «   O   ro  N   Tt-  rt-O  ^OCO  O   ON  <N   **  co  M  >O 
vO  vO  t^  t^CO  00  ONONO  O  «  W  N 


O  t-^00  ON  O  •-•  tN  ro  •*  iovo  r^ 


209 


210 


PRACTICAL   PAPER-MAKING. 


.s  £  "35 

X)  ~>     ro 
If! 

w  O    N    Tj"O  OQ    O    N    Tf-vQ  OQ    O    N    TfO  00    O 
£  fOrOfOCOro^^-Ti-Tj-Tj-u-iiovoto  LO^O 

si  a 

«00   OOO   OOO   OCX3   OCX3   OOO   O  O>-i   OM-I 

0 

S2      0 

QU    « 

^  M   ^-  vo  t>»oo   O   HH   ro  ^vO  t^  ON  O    M    f  O  vo 

l|! 

g  fOvO  00    O    fO  "^  N    -<tvO    OM-H    rj-  O    N   vo  t-* 

0                                       W      1-      HH                                                    MM 

&l  ' 

u5  t^OO   ON  O   "-I   N  Tl-  iovo  i^oo  OM-<   N   to  Tt- 
_£)i-ii-Hi-iC)MMMNCSMC^MtOrOrOfO 

ir 

w  1-1   Oi^-^-fOM    >-i   O    ONOO  t^vo  m  TJ-  fo  N 

ft*  {? 

O 

3   J? 

uJ  rj-  vn  U">VQ  r^oo  ON  O  "-1  N   fO  •«*•  "TO"  t^oo 

1 

I 

g  ^  M  el  00  ^o^O  rocoo   wt^ThiOM  «   ON 

*     X 

1  5 

CO 

.  HH   M    Tf  uivo  00   CTi  i-   N    Tj-  iOvO  00   ON  1-1   N 
_^N   N   N   N   M   N   N   rocorocococorOTj--^- 

Ti  ? 

J2  N   O   Td-00  N   O   rj-CO   N   O   "4-00   N   O   ^J"00 
0M 

£8 

./OO    O    •-«   N   rO"lvO  t^OO   O   >i   M    rO  w>vO  t-» 
,2-HC^MC^NNWNNCOrOrocOrOrOco 

<«N   rOTTrfioO   "-"   N   N   fOrj-  u->\O  vO  t^OO 

.3   x 

Q     _      _,     _     W     M 

H 

•  ir>vo  r^oo  O\  i->  w  fO  rf  vnvo  t~~oo  O\  O  "-1 

^WHHI-IMI-HNNNNNNC^MNCOrO 

£  5 

JJJCOOOOVO   fOMir^W    OOOiOfO"-1    TJ-M    O 

1? 

m'  N   ro  rj-  xr>vO  t^  t^OO   CNO   M   N   cororhvo 

— 

•Hn 
£1 

Q£ 

to  "IvO  t^OO   ON  O   1-1   N   ro  -4-  ir^vO  r^OO   ON  O 
.DwMMMWNNNNNNNWMNfO 

< 

PH 
P 

P 

Jz; 

M 
o 
o 

pq 

§ 

02 

W 

3 


fe-g . 


sf?r^ 

XXX 


HIM 
>O  O  N 
1-1  M  M 
XXX 


"3  S^ 

O    «    « 


APPENDIX.  2 1 T 


Sizes  of  Cartridge  Papers. 


Foolscap       ,        .         .  14   x  i8| 
Demy  ...        .   17^x224 

Royal  .        .         .  19   x  24 


Super  Royal  .  .  19^  x  27 
Imperial  .  .  .  21  x  26 
Elephant  .  .  .  23  x 28 


Sizes  of  Lined  Papers. 

Pinched  for  8vo  .     ' .  .  ...         .     Expansion  by  14^  in. 

Post  for  8vo          .  .                     ,,           „    15!  „ 

Large  Post  for  8vo       .  .         .             ,,            „    i6£  „ 

Large  Post  for  4to       .  .         .            „            „    2O|  „ 

Laid  Large  Post  for  4to  .                      „            „    l6£  „ 


Various  Calculations  relating  to  Weight  of  Reams  and 
Webs. 

I.  Given  sample  of  paper,  to  find  weight  of  web  100  yards 
by  60   inches  wide,   made  to   same    substance.     First  find 
square  inches  in  sample,  weigh  it,  and  from  result  obtained 
calculate  weight  of  square  inches  in  web. 

Example. — 4-22"  x  2"  =  8-44"  in  sample,  which  weighs  25-2  grains. 
Square  inches  in  web  =  216,000. 

216,000  X25-2=  644,928  =        lbs  avoin 

8-44          7000 

II.  From  sample  of  paper  given  find  variation  in  weight  ol 
ream  of  20"  x  30",  480  sheets  of  which  ought  to  weigh  30  lbs. 

Proceed  as  in  the  previous  example,  finding  the  final  result 
from  the  square  inches  in  ream. 

Example. — 177*2   square  inches  in  sample,  which  weighs  13575 
grains,  square  inches  in  ream  of  20"  x  30",  480  sheets,  288,000. 

288,000  x  13575  =39,Q96,ooo=       $  lbs>        ream> 
177-2  7000 


212  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

III.  To  find  weight  of  ream  20"  x  30",  480  sheets,  equivalent 
in  substance  to  54-inch  web,  two  yards  of  which  weigh  i  Ib. 

2  yards  x  36"  x  54"=3888  square  inches  :  20"  x  30"  x  480  =  288,000 
square  inches  in  ream  ; 

therefore  2     '°°°  =  74-07  Ibs.  per  ream  of  20"  x  30",  480  sheets 
3680 

IV.  To  find  number  of  reams,  of  a  given  size,  in  web  of  any 
given   number   of  yards,  multiply  the  yards   (in  inches)  by 
number  of  sheets   in   breadth  of  web  ;  divide  result  by  the 
draw ;    then  divide  number  of  sheets  thus  obtained  by  the 
number  of  sheets  in  the  ream. 

Example. — Given  web  1900  yards  60  inches  broad,  to  find  number 
of  reams  of  15^"  x  20",  480  sheets. 

1900  x  36  x  3  x  2  _  I3^3g  _j_  4g0  =  27  rms>  rl  qrs>  7  sheets< 


Data  for  ascertaining  the  Number  of  Gallons  of  Caustic 
Liquor  required  to  give  the  Number  of  Pounds  of  Na20 
necessary  for  a  Boiling. 

To  find  the  factor,  multiply  the  number  of  gallons  per  inch 
of  tank  by  '0518  for  60  per  cent.,  '0444  for  70  per  cent.,  and 
•04036  for  77  per  cent,  caustic. 

To  find  the  number  of  inches  necessary  to  give  the  desired 
amount  of  soda,  multiply  the  number  of  c.c.  of  standard 
acid  required  to  neutralise  TO  c.c.  of  the  soda  solution  by  the 
factor,  and  divide  the  pounds  of  soda  required  by  the  result. 

Example. — Capacity  of  tank  =  100  gallons  per  inch. 

Amount  of  soda  required  =  800  Ibs.,  70  per  cent,  caustic  (Na2O). 

100  x  '0444  =  4'44  =  factor. 

Number  of  c.c.  standard  acid  required  to  neutralise  10  c.c.  soda 
solution  =  I2'5- 

I2'5  x  4 '44  =  55-5  :  800-7-55*5  =  14*4  =  number  of  inches  necessary 
to  give  800  Ibs.  70  pe  cent,  caustic. 


APPENDIX. 


213 


Table  showing  the  Strength  of  Bleaching  Powder  Solutions, 
based  on  Lunge  and  Bachofen's  Sp.  Gr.  Table. 


Degrees  Twaddle 
at  15°  C. 

Available  Chlorine 
in  grams  per  litre. 

Degrees  Twaddle 
at  15°  C. 

Available  Chlorine 
in  grams  per  litre. 

23-10 

71-79 

12-00 

35-81 

23-00 

71-50 

11-00 

32-68 

22-IO 

68-40 

lO'OO 

29  60 

22-00 

68-00 

9-00 

26-62 

2  1  -2O 

65'33 

8-00 

2375 

2  TOO 

64-50 

7-00 

2044 

20-00 

61-50 

6-00 

17-36 

IQ'OO 

58-40 

5-00 

I4-47 

iS'OO 

55-18 

4-00 

11-41 

iy-00 

52-27 

3-00 

8-48 

1  6  -oo 

49-96 

200 

5-58 

15-00 

4$70 

I'OO 

2-71 

14-00 

42-31 

0-50 

1-40 

13-00 

39-10 

O'OO 

trace 

Composition  of  solution  upon  which  the  above  table  was 
originally  founded : — 


Available  chlorine 
Chlorine  as  chloride  . 
Chlorine  as  chlorate  . 
Lime  . 


72*17  grams  per  litre. 
6'74      »  » 

0-13       „ 


214 


PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 


Weights  and  Measures  of  the  Metric  System. 
WEIGHTS. 

I  Milligram  =  -ooi  gram. 

I  Centigram  =  'Oi         „ 

I  Decigram  =  'I  „ 

i  Gram  =  weight  of  a  cubic  centimetre  of  water  at  4°  C. 

i  Decagram  =       icrooo  grams. 

I  Hectogram  =     loo-ooo      „ 

I  Kilogram  =  looo-ooo      „ 

MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 

i  Millilitre  =  I  cubic  centimetre,  or  the  measure  of  I  gram  of  water 

I  Centilitre  =  10  cubic  centimetres. 

I  Decilitre  =  100     „             „ 

i  Litre  =  1000  „            „ 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

I  Millimetre  =  -ooi  metre. 

I  Centimetre  =  *oi       ,, 

I  Decimetre  =  •!         „ 

I  Metre  =  the   ten    millionth  part  of  a  quarter   of   the  earth's 

meridian. 

I  gram  =  15-43235  grains;  31-103496  grams  =  I  oz.  troy. 
'453593  kilogram  =  i  Ib.  avoir ;  50-802377  kilograms  =  I  cwt. 
I  cubic  inch  =  16-386176  cubic  cent.;  i  cubic  foot  =  28-315312  cubic 

decimetres ;  i  gallon  =  4-543458  litres. 

I  inch  =  2-539954  centimetres;  I  foot  =  3-0479449  decimetres. 
I  yard  =  0-9143835  metre;  I  mile  =  1-6093149  kilometre. 


APPENDIX. 


215 


French  and  English  Thermometer  Scales. 


Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Ce 

(C.) 

(Fahr.) 

o  degrees 

equal     32  degrees. 

55 

5 

41 

60 

10           „ 

50 

65 

5         » 

59 

70 

20           „ 

„         68         „ 

75 

25 

77 

80 

30 

86 

85 

35 

95 

90 

40 

,,       104 

95 

45 

„       "3 

ICO 

50 

,i         122 

Centigrade.  Fahrenheit. 

(C.)  (Fahr.) 

55  degrees  equal  131  degrees. 


J49 
158 
167 
176 

185 

194 


212  water  boils. 


To  convert  degrees  Fahrenheit  into  degrees  Centigrade,  subtract  32, 
multiply  by  5,  divide  by  9. 

To  convert  degrees  Centigrade  into  degrees  Fahrenheit,  multiply 
by  9,  divide  by  5,  and  add  32. 

To  convert  degrees  Reaumur  into  degrees  Centigrade,  multiply  by  5 
and  divide  by  4. 

To  convert  degrees  Reaumur  into  degrees  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  9, 
divide  by  4,  and  add  32. 

To  convert  degrees  Centigrade  into  degrees  Reaumur,  multiply  by  4 
and  divide  by  5- 

To  convert  degrees  Fahrenheit  into  degrees  Reaumur,  subtract  32, 
multiply  by  4,  and  divide  by  9. 

Useful  Data. 

To  find  the  cubical  contents  in  gallons  of  any  square  or 
rectangular  vessel,  multiply  the  length,  depth,  and  breadth 
in  feet  together,  and  the  result  by  6-2355.  Should  the  measure- 
ments be  taken  in  inches,  the  result  will  require  to  be  multi 
plied  by  -003607  in  place  of  6*2355. 


To  find  the  number  of  gallons  contained  in  a  cylindrical 


216  PRACTICAL  PAPER-MAKING. 

vessel,  first  square  the  diameter,  then  multiply  by  3-1416; 
divide  result  by  4  and  multiply  by  depth  ;  after  which,  proceed 
as  in  the  case  of  a  square  vessel — i.e.,  multiply  by  6-2355  ^  in 
feet,  or  by  -003607  if  in  inches. 

To  reduce  inches  to  metres,  multiply  by  .       '02540. 

„  centimetres  to  inches,  multiply  by  .       '3937- 

„  inches  to  centimetres         „  „  .     2-540. 

„  kilograms  to  pounds          „  „  .     2-2046. 

„  gallons  to  litres  „  ,,  .     4-548. 

„  litres  to  gallons  „  „  .       -22. 

„  pin ts  to  cubic  centimetres  „  „  567-936. 

„  grams  to  grains  '    „  „  .  I5'432- 

,,  grains  to  grams  „  „  .    .  -0648. 

„  ounces  to  grams  „  „  .  28-349. 

To  convert  kilograms  per  square  centimetre  into  pounds  per 
square  inch,  multiply  by  14*2247. 

To   convert  pounds  per   square   inch  into    kilograms  per 
square  centimetre,  multiply  by  '0703. 

(From  Bayley's  •'Chemist's  Pocket-Book.") 

I  pint  equals  1*25  Ibs.,  or  8750-0  grains  of  water. 

i  gallon  of  distilled  water  equals  10  Ibs.,  and  measures 
277-274  cubic  inches. 

i  Ib.  Avoir,   equals  7000  grains;    i  Ib.  Troy  equals  5760 
grains;   i  oz.  Troy  equals  460  grains. 


INDEX, 


ACETIC  acid,  21 
Acetate  of  lime,  22 
Acid,  arsenious,  deci-normal  solu- 
tion of,  203 

—  carbonic,  13 

—  colours,  76 

—  free,  in  sulphates  of  alumina, 

86 
--  hydrochloric,  13,  27 

—  hypochlorous,  21 

—  nitric,  169 

—  or  bi-sulphite  processes,  31 

—  oxalic,  208 

—  sulphuric,  21,  27 

—  sulphurous,  32,  34 

Action  of  atmosphere  on  cellu- 
lose, 2  ;  on  mechanical  wood 
in  paper,  42 

—  of  bleach  on  cellulose,  2 ;  on 

jute,  14,  36 

—  of  caustic  soda  on  vegetable 

fibres,  10 

—  of  cupric  hydrate  on  cellulose, 

2 

Adipo-cellulose,  4 
African  esparto,  Muller's  analysis 

of,  44 
Agalite,  71 
Agitators,  95 
Air  blast,  49 
Albumen,  ammonium,  90 
Alcohol,  dilute,  90,  165 
Alkali  processes,  31,  33 


Alkali  testing  caustic,  195 
Alkaline  soap,  148 
Alum,  85 

—  crystal,  estimation  of  alumina 

in,  200  • 

—  in  sizing,  85,  138 
Alumina,  sulphates  of,  86 

—  use  of,  in  bleaching,  21,  27 

—  in  paper,  testing  for,  174 
Ammonia,  vanadate  of,  32 

—  soda,  16 

Ammonium  albumen,  90 
Angle  cutter,  152 
Angles,  cutting,  159 
Aniline  colours,  75 

—  sulphate  of,  169 

Animal  size,  preparation  of,  137 

—  testing  paper  for,  173 

—  sizing,  138 
Antichlor,  28 
Apron,  100,  102 
Apron-board,  128 
Arsenious  acid,  203 
Ash-soda,  boiling  with,  15 

—  in  engine  size  making,  81 
Atmosphere,  action  of,  on  cellu- 
lose, 2  ;  on  mechanical  wood 
in  paper,  42 


BACK-LASH  of  vacuum  pump,. 
"3 
Backwater,  106 


218 


INDEX. 


Barium  chloride,  69 

—  sulphate,  69,  172 
Bark  liquor,  75 
Basic  colours,  76 
Bast  fibres,  5 

Beater,  construction  of,  59 

—  choice  of,  62 

—  Forbes's  patent,  59 

—  Marshall's  patent,  56 

—  Hibbert,  61 

—  Hollander,  61 

—  plates,  55,  60 

—  rolls,  55,  60 
Beaters,  intermediate,  55 
Beating,  effect  of,  on  sizing,  84 

—  free  or  fast  stuff,  52 

—  heavy  engines,  in 

—  light  engines,  112 

—  long  stuff,  52,  53 

—  short  stuff,  53 

—  Spanish  esparto,  57 

—  stuff  for  bank  and  loan  papers, 

52 ;  for  chromo  and  plate 
papers,  53;  for  blotting- 
papers,  59 

—  wood,  58 
Beech,  43 
Bells,  134 

Bicarbonate  of  sodium,  187 
Bichromate  of  potash,  75 
Birch,  43 

Bisulphite  of  lime,  33 

—  of  magnesium,  33 
Bisulphite  process,    Cross's,  32 ; 

Ekman's,  34 ;  Mitscherlich's, 
35 ;  Partington's,  35 
Bleach,  effect  of,  on  cellulose,  2 

—  mixer,  24 

Bleaching,  electrolytic,  25  ;  Hor- 
mite's  process,  26 

—  esparto,  49 

—  gas,  15 

—  house,  27 

—  jute,  14 

—  liquor,  preparation  of,  24 

—  Lunge's  method,  21 

—  ozone,  25 

—  powder,  preparation  of,  19,  2O 

—  rags,  12,  19 

-  rationale  of,  20,  25 


Bleaching  straw,  50,  51 

—  use  of  acetic  acid  in,  21  ;  alum 

in,  21,  27  ;  steam  in,  26;  sul- 
phuric acid  in,  21,  27 

—  wood,  39 

Blitz's  sulphide  wood-pulp  pro- 
cess, 32 

Blotting  papers,  59 
Blowing,  I2O 
Blow-off  cock,  34,  39,  47 
Blue,  colouring  with,  73 

—  Paris,  75 

—  smalts,  74 

—  standard  sample  of,  72 
Blue-wove,  making,  102,  136 
Boilers,  revolving,  8l 

—  stationery,  14 
Boiling,  rationale  of,  IO 

—  esparto,  46 

—  jute,  13      . 

—  rags,  10 

—  straw,  50,  51 

—  with  lime,  12,  13 
Book  papers,  sizes  of,  2IO 
Boxes,  suction,  108 
Breaking  in  half-stuff,  19 

—  at  press-roll,  105,  113 

—  at  calenders,  126 
Breast-box,  99 

roll,   107 

Broke,  53,  54 

Brown's  patent  dandy  roll,  118 
Burnishing,  150 


CALCINED  soda,  180 
\^j     Calcium,  chloride  of,  2O 

—  chlorate  of,  23 

—  hypochlorate  of,  20 

—  sulphate,  69 
Calender,  plate-glazing,  150 

—  super,  146 
Calenders,  machine,  126 
Canada  balsam,  166 
Carbonate  of  lime,  13 

—  of   magnesium,    34 :    sodium, 

207 

Carbonic  acid,  13,  88,  185 
Carnation,  72,  74,  165 


INDEX. 


219 


Carrying-rolls,  129 
Cartridge  papers,  sizes  of,  2IO 
Caseine  sizing,  90 
Caustic  soda,  10,  44,  45 

—  estimation  of  alkali  in,  197 

—  data  for  strength  of  leys,  212 

—  table     showing    strength    of 

leys,  206 
Causticising  recovered  soda,  184 

—  test,  185 

Cellulose,  action  of  atmosphere 
on,  2  ;  bleach  on,  2 ;  solvents 
on,  2 

—  composition      and      chemical 

formula,  I 

—  of  cotton,  5  ;  esparto,  5,  6,  46  ; 

flax,  5  ;  hemp,  5 ;  jute,  5  ; 
Manilla  hemp,  5,  6  ;  straw,  5, 
7,  50  ;  wood  (chemical),  5,  6, 
31  ;  wood  (mechanical),  5,  6 

Celluloses,  compound,  3 

Chapman  and  Fawcett  evaporator, 
191 

Chemical  and  physical  character- 
istics of  various  fibres,  5» 

6,7 

Chemical  wood-pulp,  5,  6,  31 

Chemicals,  testing,  195 

China  clay,  68,  69,  172;  action 
in  glazing,  68;  action  in 
sizing,  69;  preparation  for 
the  engine,  68 ;  properties, 
68;  retention  of,  70;  selec- 
tion of,  68 

Chloric  acid,  27 

Chloride  of  ammonium,  174;  cal- 
cium, 20;  lime,  20;  magne- 
sium, 26 ;  silver,  175  ;  sodium, 
199 

Chlorides,  testing  paper  for,  175 

Chlorine  reaction  with  jute,  16,  36 

—  estimation    of,    in    bleaching 

powder,  203 

—  gas,  bleaching  with,  15,  2O 
Chlorus  acid,  27 

Circular  knives,  153,  160 
Cockling,  124,  143 
Colouring,  72 
Commercial  soda,  grades  of,  199 

—  examination  of,  197 


Composition  of  woods,  43 

Cooling-roll,  143 

Cork  tissue,  4 

Cotton  calender  rolls,  148 

—  coloured,  rags,  6 

—  fibres,  3 ;  physical  character- 

istics of,  3 
Couch-roll  jacket,  135,  136 

—  under,  109 
Cracks,  127 

Cross-cutting  knives,  153,  161 
Cupric  ammonia,  action  on  cellu- 
lose, 2 

Cutter,  English,  160 

—  revolving   angle   and  square, 

.152 
Cutting,  152 

—  burnished  papers,  156 

—  cartridge  papers,  160 

—  machine,  rag,  9 

—  tissue  papers,  13 
Cylinders,  damping,  147 

-  drying,  99 

Cuticular  tissue  of  cotton,  4; 
esparto,  4,  168 ;  straw,  4, 
1 68 


DAHL'S  sulphate  process,  32, 
33,36 

Damping  rolls,  147 
Dandy  roll,  Brown's  patent,    118 

—  rolls,  115  ;  named,  115 
Data,  useful,  215,  216 
Deckle  strap,  IOI 

Deckles,  Holloway's  patent,  IOO 
-  old  style  of,  100 

Determination  of  alumina  in 
alum,  200  ;  available  chlorine 
in  bleaching  powder,  203  ; 
percentage  of  mineral  sub- 
stances in  paper,  172,  176  ; 
total  alkali  in  sodas,  197 

Draws,  changing,  125 

—  double  and  single,  159 
Double-crown,  210 

—  demy,  210 

—  elephant,  2IO 

—  foolscap,  2IO 


220 


INDEX. 


Double-crown  post,  209 

—  pott,  209 
Drier,  142 

Drum,  washing,  18,  39 
Drying  loft,  145 
Dusting  esparto,  45 

—  ra§5>  9 
Dyeing  to  shade,  78 


EDGE-RUNNER,  54 
Ekman's     wood-pulp    pro- 
cess, 34 

Elasticity  of  fibres,  II,  58 
Electrolytic  bleaching,  25 ;  Her- 
mite's    process,    26;     ozone 
method,  25 

—  manufacture   of    alkali,    2OO ; 

bleaching  powder,  200 
Engine,  beating,  59 

—  Forbes's  patent  beater,  59 

—  Marshall's  perfecting,  56 

—  size,  80;   preparation  of,  81; 

recipe  for  neutral  resin  soap, 
83 ;  recipe  for  white,  83 

—  washing  and  breaking,  17,  18 
Esparto,   available    cellulose   in, 

44 

—  bleaching,  49 

—  detection  of,  in  paper,  168 
—  dusting,  45 

—  isolation  of  cellulose  in,  44 

—  Muller's  analysis  of,  44 

—  physical  characteristics  of,  5 

—  rationale  of  boiling,  45 

—  steepers,  48 

—  summer,  45 

—  washing,  48,  49 

—  winter,  45 

Estimation  of  alumina  in  alum, 
200;  antichlor,  2OI ;  chlorine 
in  bleaching  powder,  203 ; 
mineral  substances  in  paper, 
176;  sodas,  197 

Evaporator,  Porion's,  1 88 

—  Yaryan's,  190 
Examination,    microscopical,    of 

paper,  163 


T7ADING  in  engines  and  chests, 
F     74 

Fast  driving,  128 
Fast  stuff,  52 
Feeding-rolls,  154,  160 
Felt,  dry,  122 

—  wet,  122 
Felting,  7,  II,  12,  53 

Ferric  oxide  causticising  process. 

I87 
Fibres,  cotton,  recognition  of,  by 

microscope,  166 

—  elasticity  of,  53 

—  esparto,  168 

—  flax  or  linen,  167 

—  hemp,  167 

—  jute,  167 

—  Manilla,  167 

—  physical      characteristics     of 

various,  5»  6,  7 

—  straw,  1 68 

—  wood,  chemical,  167;  mechani- 

cal, 1 68 

Fibro-vascular  bundles,  5 
Filaments,  5 
Finishing,  161 
First  pump-box,  113 

—  press-rolls,  123 
Flax,  cellulose  of,  4,  5,  6 

—  boiling,  13 
Foolscap,  2 IO 

Forbes's  patent  beater,  59 
Fourdrinier  machine,  93 
Free  resin,  80 

French  and  English  thermometer 
scales,  215 

—  weights  and  measures,  214 
Friction,     glazed  paper    cutting, 

156 

—  glazing,  150 
Froth-killers,  III 
Furnace,  incinerating,  178 

—  Warren  rotary,  193 


GAS,  bleaching  with  chlorine, 
15,  20 

Gaunt  evaporator,  191 
Glass  covers,  164 
—  slides,  164 


INDEX. 


221 


Glazing  friction,  150 

—  plate,  150 
Glycerine,  164 
Grass,  esparto,  44 

—  knots,  98 
Greens,  colouring,  75 
Ground  wood,  41 
Guide-roll,  130,  133 
Guiding-tapes,  144 


HALF-STUFF,   breaking   in, 
19 
Hard-boiled  grass,  47 

—  water  in  sizing,  87 

Hemp  fibres,  physical  character- 
istics of,  6 

—  Manilla,  6,  59 

Hermite's  bleaching  process,  26 

Hibbert  beater,  61 

High  pressures,  effectof,in  boiling, 

46 ;  in  boiling  wood,  33 
Hollander  beater,  6 1 
Holloway's  deckles,  100 
Hydrate  of  soda,  10,  44,  45 
Hydrochloric  acid,  13,  27 
Hydrometer,  Twaddle's,  207 
Hypochlorite  of  calcium,  20 
Hypochlorous  acid,  20 
Hyposulphite  of  soda,  28 


TMPERIAL,  210 

X      Incinerating  furnace,  178 

Iodide  of  potassium,  30 

—  and  starch  test,  30 

Iodine,  deci-normal  solution,  2OI 

—  reaction  with  cellulose,  2,  3, 

163 
Iron,  free,  test  for,  in  alum  cake, 

201 

—  use  of,  in  colouring,  75 
Irregular  weight,  93 
Isolation  of  cellulose,  3 


JUTE  fibres,  bleaching,  14,  22 
—  boiling,  13 

—  physical  characteristics,  4,  6 

—  reaction  with  chlorine,  16,  36 


KAOLIN,  68 
—     preparation     for     the 
engine,  68 

—  properties  of,  68 
Killing  black  threads,  23 
Knife,  cross-cutting,  153,  161 

—  doctor,  1 1 1 

Knives,  circular,  153,  160 
Knots,  grass,  46,  57 

—  strainer,  98 
Knotter,  129 

Kollergang  "  broke,"  53,  54 
Kraft  brown  papers,  37 


LAID  paper,  113 
—  dandy-rolls,  115;  Brown's 
patent,  118 
Lead,  nitrate  of,  75 
Leys,  table  showing  strength  of, 

206 

Lignin,  3 

Ligno-cellulose,  4,  31,  50 
Lime,  boiling  with,  12,  13 

—  bisulphite  of,  35 

—  carbonate  of,  13 

—  hypochlorite  of,  2O 

—  hyposulphite  of,  201 

—  milk  of,  15 

—  mud,  25 

—  removal  of,  from  hides,  137 

—  salts  from  bleaching  solution, 

24,87 

—  solutions  of,  for  boiling  with, 

13 

—  sulphates  of,  87 
Lime  tree,  43 

Linen  fibres,  characteristics  of,  6  ; 
recognition  of,  by  microscope, 
167 

—  rag  papers,  sizing  and  drying 

of,  142 

Liquor,  bleaching,  preparation  of, 
24 ;  uniformity  of,  23 

—  spent,  recovery  of  soda  from, 

178 

Litmus  solution,  195 
Lixiviation,  181 

—  methods   of  conducting,  182, 

183 


222 


INDEX. 


Lixiviation  tanks,  l8l 
Loading,  67 

—  agalite  as,  71 

—  barium  chloride  as,  71 

—  barium  sulphate  as,  69,  172 

—  China  clay  as,  68,  69 

—  chromo  and  plate  papers,  69 

—  mechanical  wood  as,  42 

—  printing  papers,  67 
Long  measure,  French,  214 

—  stuff,  53 

—  wires,  105 

Lunge's  bleaching  process,  21 


MACHINE,  centrifugal,  16 
—    cylinders,     effect     on 
sizing  of,  89 

—  English  cutting,  1 60 

—  Fourdrinier,  management  of, 

93 

—  presse-pate,  39,  46,  51 

—  rag  cutting,  9 

—  revolving  cutting,  152 

—  willowing  and  dusting,  8,  45 
Machine    wire,    putting    on   and 

starting,  129 

Magnesia,  carbonate  of,  87 
—  sulphate  of,  87 
Magnesium,  bi-sulphite  of,  33,  34 

—  chloride  of,  26 
Making  bank  papers,  54,  55 

—  cartridge  papers,  97,  134 

—  chromo  papers,  55 

—  loan  papers,  54 

—  plate  papers,  5 

—  web  papers,  126 

—  yellow  wove  papers,  102 
Manganese,  peroxide  of,  16 
Manilla,    physical   characteristics 

of,  5 

—  recognition  of,  by  microscope, 

167 

Marshall's  perfecting  engine,  56 
Mechanical  wood-pulp,  41 ;  action 
of  atmosphere  on,  42 ;  load- 
ing with,  42 ;  preparation  of, 
41 ;  recognition  of,  in  paper, 
169 


Method,  Hermite's,  of  bleaching, 
26 

—  Lunge's,  of  bleaching,  21 
Metric   system    of   weights   and 

measures,  214 

Microscope,  recognition  of  cotton 
fibres,  by  means  of,  166; 
china  clay,  by  means  of,  172  ; 
esparto  fibres,  by  means  of, 
1 68;  flax  fibres,  by  means  of, 
167;  hemp  fibres,  by  means 
of,  167  ;  jute  fibres,  by  means 
of,  167;  Manilla  fibres,  by 
means  of,  167;  pearl  harden- 
ing, by  means  of,  172;  straw 
fibres,  by  means  of,  1 68 ; 
terra-alba,  by  means  of,  1 72  ; 
wood  fibres,  by  means  of, 
167,  1 68 

—  suitable  objectives  for,  164 
Microscopical     examination      of 

fibres,  163 
Mid-feather,  18 
Milk  of  lime,  35 
Milk  sizing,  90 

Mitscherlich's  "slow"  process,  35 
Multiple  effects,  188 


NASCENT  oxygen,  20 
Nitrate  of  lead,  75 
Nitric  acid,  169 
Nitro-sulphuric  acid,  169 
Non-cellulose,  3,  14,  22,  35, 44,  46 


OIL  of  vitriol,  127 
—  sperm,  148 
Overhauling,  164 
Oxidisation,  prevention  of,  33 
Oxy-cellulose,  2,  27 
Ozone  bleaching,  25 


PACKING,  on  pulleys,  124 
Pan,  evaporating,  179 
Paper,  bank,  52 


INDEX. 


223 


Paper,  blotting,  stuff  for,  59 

—  blue,  making,  136 

—  broke,  53,  54 

—  chromo,  stuff  for,  53,  55 

—  cutting  tissue,  157 

—  effect  of  straw  fibres  in,  51 

—  glazing  coloured,   150;  straw, 

149 ;  wood,   149 

—  green  colouring  of,  75 

—  machine,  Fourdrinier,  93 

—  plate,  stuff  for,  55 

—  printing,  glazing  of,  148 

—  sizes  of,  209,  210 

—  soft-sized,  58,  1 10 

—  testing,  for  animal   size,   173, 

174;  alum,  174;  chlorides, 
175;  engine  size,  176; 
mineral  substances,  176 

—  toned,  75 

—  tub-sizing,  139,  140,  141 
Paris  blue,  75 

Partington's  wood-pulp  process, 

Pearl  hardening,  69,  172,  177 
Pectic  acid,  23 
Pecto-cellulose,  3,  46,  50 
Perfecting  engine,  Marshall's,  56, 

139 

Peroxide  of  manganese,  io 
Physical  characteristics  of  cellu- 
lose, 1,2;    of  various  fibres, 

5>6»7 
Picking  esparto,  45 

—  couch-roll  jacket,  136 

—  wet  rags,  17 
Pine,  43 

Plant  structures,  3 
Plate  glazing,  150 
Poplar,  43 

—  pulp,  40 

Porion's  evaporator,  1 88 

—  roaster,  178 
Potash  caustic,  201 
Potassium  iodide,  23,  30 
Potcher,  39 

Preliminary  treatment  of  wood, 
32;  esparto,  45,46 

Preparation  of  animal  size,  137  ; 
bleaching  liquor,  24 ;  bleach- 
ing powder,  19;  breach 


test,   203;  causticising  test, 
185  ;  normal  sulphuric  acid, 

195 

Presse-pate,  39,  46,  51 
Press-rolls,  breaking  at,  105,  113, 

—  first,  123 

—  second,   123 

Pressure  in  boiling,  33 ;  glazing, 

149 ;  evaporation,  188 
Printing  paper,  glazing  of,  148 
Process,  Blitz's,  32 

—  acid,     bisulphite,    for    wood,, 

—  alkali,  for  wood,  31,  33 

—  chemical,  for  wood,  32,  33 

—  Cross's,  32 

—  Dahl's,  32,  33,  36 

—  Ekman's,  34 

—  Hermite's,  26 

—  Lunge's,  21 

—  mechanical,  for  wood,  41,  42 

—  Mitscherlich's,  35 

—  Partington's,  35 

—  sulphate,    for    wood,    32,    33,. 

36 

—  sulphide,  for  wood,  32 

—  sulphite,  33,  34,  35 

—  Watt  and  Burgess's,  33 
Pulp,  wood,  31 

—  straw,  50,  51 

—  sulphate,  32,  33,  36 

—  sulphite,  33,  34,  35 
Pumps,  stuff,  95 

—  vacuum,  108 


RAG  cutting  machine,  9 
Rags,  beating,  54 

—  bleaching,  19 

—  boiling,  IO 

—  breaking,  18 

—  grading  and  dusting,  8 
Raised  seam,  127,  134 
Recognition    of    fibres     by    the 

microscope,  163,  169 
Recovery  of  soda,  178 
Reeling  at  the  sizer,  141 
Resinate  of  alumina,  80,  83 
Resin,  free,  theory,  80 


224 


INDEX. 


Resin   size,  preparation   of,  81  ; 
recipes  for,  83 

—  soap,  68,  83 

—  spots,  84 
Retting,  4 
Revolving  boilers,  14 

—  cutter,  152 

—  strainer,  96 
Roll,  beater,  55,  60 

—  breaker,  19 

—  breast,  107 

—  carrying,  129 
t—  couch,  136 

—  stent,  132 
Rolls,  calender,  148 

—  cotton  covered,  148 

—  dry-felt,  121 

—  hard,  on  edges  of  web,    loo, 

101 

—  wet-felt,  130 
Ropes,  6 
Royal,  209,  210 
Rust  spots,  60 


SAND  TRAP,  96 
Save-all,  1 08 
Scandinavian  mills,   produce   of, 

37 

Scotch  wood-pulp  process,  39 
Scott  multiple  effect,  192 
Screens,  42 
Second  press-felt,  123 

—  press-roll,  123 

Setting  circular  knives,  153,  160 
Settling  of  stuff  on  machine  wire, 

53 

Shake,  58,  107 
Sheave,  149 
Size,  animal,  preparation  of,  137 

—  engine,  68 

Sizes  of  book  papers,  210;  cart- 
ridge papers,  21 1  ;  printing 
papers,  2IO;  writing  papers, 
209 

Sizing,  animal,  or  tub,  139 

—  caseine,  90 

—  engine,  80 
Smalts,  74   , 


Smoothing-rolls,  125 
Soap,  in  sizing,  138 

—  resin,  80,  83 

Soda,  aluminate  of,  187 

—  ash,  59 

—  calcined,  1 80 

—  carbonate  of,  207 

—  caustic,  testing,  197 

—  hydrate  of,  36 

—  hyposulphite  of,  testing,  201 

—  process,  40 

—  recovery  of,  178 

—  silicate  of,  187 

—  sulphate  of,  36 ;  testing,  203 

—  sulphide  of,  36 

—  table  showing  amount  of,  in 

solutions  of  various  densities, 
206,  207 
Sodium  chloride,  199 

—  resinate,  86 
Soft-sized  papers,  no 
Solvents,  action  on  cellulose,  2 
Sorting  esparto,  46 

—  rags,  10 

Spangling  or  glistening,  143 
Spanish  esparto,  analysis  of,  44 
Spent  liquors,  recovery  of,  178 
Standard     microscopical     speci- 
mens,   170;    shade   of  blue, 
72 ;  carnation,  72 

—  sulphuric  acid,  preparation  of, 

195 

Starch,  71 

—  detection  of,  in  paper,  175 

—  paste,  202 

Steam,   use  of,  in  bleaching,  20, 

50 
Strainer,  96 

—  plates,  97 

—  revolving,  96 
Straining  china  clay,  68 

—  Pulp,  96,  97 

—  starch,  72 

—  terra-alba   (barium   sulphate), 

70 

—  ultramarine,  73 
Straw,  bleaching,  51 

—  boiling,  50 

—  physical  characteristics  of,  5 
Structures,  plant,  3 


INDEX. 


225 


Stuff  chests,  95 
-  fast,  52,  55 

—  free,  52,  53,  103 

—  long,  53-55 

—  short,  53 

—  soft,  55,  104 

Sulphate  of  alumina,  86;  aniline, 
169  ;  lime,  87  ;  magnesia,  87 ; 
soda,  36 

—  wood-pulp,  168 ;  process,  36 
Sulphide  of  soda,  186 
Sulphite  of  soda,  29 

—  processes,  32 

—  pulp,  167 

Sulphur  impurities  in  water,  208 ; 

coal,  1 80 

Sulphuric  acid,  21 
Sulphurous  acid,  32,  33;  gas,  33, 

34 
Super-calender,  148 


TABLE  of  French  and  English 
thermometer  scales,  215 

—  showing  amount    of    caustic 

soda  in  leys  of  various  den- 
sities, 206 ;  amount  of  soda 
in  leys  of  various  densities, 
206,  207  ;  composition  of  es- 
parto, 44 ;  composition  of 
straw,  51;  equivalent  weights 
and  sizes  of  printing  papers, 
210;  equivalent  weights  and 
sizes  of  writing-papers,  209  ; 
percentage  of  alum  in  solu- 
tions of  various  specific 
gravities,  207 ;  strength  of 
bleaching-powder  solutions, 

213 

—  sand,  96 

Tables  of  metric  system,  214 
Terra-alba  (barium  sulphate),  69 
Testing  alum,  200 
—  antichlor,  201 
Testing  bleaching  powder,  203 

—  caustic  soda,  197 

—  hyposulphite  of  soda,  201 

—  paper  for  alum,   174;  animal 

size,    173;     chlorides,     175; 


engine  size,  176;  mechanical 
wood,    169 ;     mineral    sub- 
stances, 176 
Testing  recovered  soda,  197 

—  sulphite  of  soda,  203 

—  ultramarine,  73 

—  water    for    impurities,    207 ; 

hardness,  207 
Thermometer  scales,  French  and 

English,  215 
Thread,  4 
Toned  paper,  75 
Treatment  of  esparto,  44 ;  jute, 

14;  rags,  8,  18 ;  straw,   50; 

wood  (chemical),   31 ;   wood 

(mechanical),  41 
Tub  sizing,  139 
Turpentine,  136 
Twaddle's  hydrometer,conversion 

of     degrees      into     specific 

gravity,  207 


T  TLTRAMARINE,        acid-re- 
\^_J      sisting  power  of,  73 

—  colouring  power  of,  73 

—  fading  in  engines  and  chests, 

74 

—  standard  shade  of,  72 
Unsized  papers,  58 


VACUUM  pumps,  108 
Vanadate  of  ammonia,  32 
Vanilline,  2 
Vitriol,  127 
Vulcanite,  108 


\\77ARREN  rotary  furnace,  193 
Vv       Washing  drum,  17 

—  engine,  17 

—  esparto,  48,  49 

—  rags,  17 

—  straw,  51 
-  wood,  39 

Wash-roll,  109 


226 


INDEX. 


Water,    hard,    87;   testing,    for 

impurities,  207 
Water-marking,  117 
Watt  and  Burgess's  process,  33 
Wax,  150 
Webs,  making,  126 
Weights  and  measures  of  metric 

system,  214 
Wet  picking,  17 
Wire,  length  of,  105 
Wood,  acid  treatment  of,  31 

—  fibres,  characteristics  of,  5,  7 

—  lime,  43 

—  pulp,  chemical,   5,  7,  58;  me- 

chanical, 41 

—  soda,  33 

—  sulphate,  168 


Wood,  sulphite,  167    • 
Woods,  composition  of,  43 
Wiirster    and    Zugler's     experi- 
ments with  rags,  12 
Wurster's  theory  of  sizing,  80 


VfARYAN  evaporator,  190 
1       Yellow-wove,  making,  102 
Yield  of  cellulose  from  esparto, 
44;  straw,  51;  wood,  33,  35 


UGLER   and  Wurster's  ex- 
-     periments  with  rags,  12 


Printed  by  Hazell,  Watson,  &  Viney,  Ld.,  London  and  Aylesbury. 


STATIONERS'  HALL  COURT,  LONDON,  B.C. 

CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S 

CATALOGUE  OF 

SCIENTIFIC    TECHNICAL 


INDUSTRIAL  BOOKS 


D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY 

Sole  Agents  for  the  United  States 


PAGE 
MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING.     1 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING 11 

MARINE  ENGINEERING,  &c.  .    19 

MINING  &  METALLURGY 22 

COLLIERY  WORKING,  &c.  . .  .   26 

ELECTRICITY 28 

ARCHITECTURE  &  BUILDING.  31 
SANITATION  &  WATER  SUP- 
PLY    35 

CARPENTRY  &  TIMBER 36 


DECORATIVE  ARTS 

NATURAL  SCIENCE 

CHEMICAL  MANUFACTURES. 

INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

COMMERCE,  TABLES,  &c 

AGRICULTURE  &  GARDEN- 
ING 

MATHEMATICS  &  ARITH- 
METIC  

LAW  &  MISCELLANEOUS.  . 


PAGE 
38 

40 
41 
43 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING,   ETC. 


THE    MECHANICAL   HANDLING    OF   MATERIAL. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Handling  of  Material,  such  as  Coal,  Ore,  Timber,  etc., 
by  Automatic  or  Semi-automatic  Machinery,  together  with  the  Various 
Accessories  used  in  the  Manipulation  of  such  Plant,  and  Dealing  fully 
with  the  Handling,  Storing,  and  Warehousing  of  Grain.  By  G.  F. 
ZIMMER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  528  pages.  Royal  8vo,  cloth,  with  550  Illus- 
trations (including  Folding  Plates)  specially  prepared  for  the  Work 

^  $10.00 

CONTENTS: — CHAPTER  I.  INTRODUCTORY. — II.  ELEVATORS. — III.  WORM 
CONVEYORS. — IV.  PUSH-PLATE  OR  SCRAPER  CONVEYORS. — V.  TROUGH 
CABLE  CONVEYORS. — VI.  BAND  CONVEYORS. — VII.  METAL  BAND  CON- 
VEYORS.— VIII.  PICKING  BELTS  OR  TABLES  WITH  OR  WITHOUT  LOWERING 
ENDS  OR  SHOOTS.  IX.  THE  CONTINUOUS  TROUGH  OR  TRAVELLING  TROUGH 
CONVEYOR. — X.  VIBRATING  TROUGH  CONVEYORS. — XI.  TIGHTENING  GEAR 
FOR  ELEVATORS  AND  CONVEYORS,  AND  DRIVING  POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  DIF- 
FERENT TYPES  OF  CONVEYORS. — XII.  THE  TRAVELLING  OR  TILTING  BUCKET 
CONVEYORS. — XIII.  PNEUMATIC  ELEVATORS  AND  CONVEYORS. — XIV.  CON- 
VEYORS DESIGNED  FOR  SPECIAL  PURPOSES,  INCLUDING  THE  BOLINDER  TlMBER 

CONVEYOR,  COKE  CONVEYORS,  AND  CASTING  MACHINES. — XV.  ENDLESS 
CHAIN  AND  ROPE  HAULAGE. — XVI.  ROPEWAYS  AND  AERIAL  CABLEWAYS, 
INCLUDING  ROPEWAYS,  CABLEWAYS,  AND  APPLIANCES  FOR  COALING  AT  SEA. — 
XVII.  UNLOADING  APPLIANCES,  INCLUDING  METHODS  OF  DISCHARGING  BY 

MEANS  OF  SKIPS  AND  GRABS. XVIII.    DISCHARGING  VESSELS  AND  BARGES 

BY  MEANS  OF  ELEVATORS. XIX.  UNLOADING  BY  MEANS  OF  SPECIALLY  CON- 
STRUCTED SELF-EMPTYING  BOATS  AND  BARGES. — XX.  UNLOADING  BY  MEANS 
OF  SPECIALLY  CONSTRUCTED  SELF-EMPTYING  RAILWAY  TRUCKS. — XXI.  UN- 
LOADING BY  MEANS  OF  COAL  TlPS. XXII.  COLLIERY  TlPPLERS. XXIII. 

MISCELLANEOUS  LOADING  AND  UNLOADING  DEVICES. — XXIV.  AUTOMATIC 
LOADING  DEVICES. — XXV.  THE  AUTOMATIC  WEIGHING  OF  MATERIAL. — 
XXVI.  COALING  OF  RAILWAY  ENGINES. — XXVII.  COAL-HANDLING  PLANT 


4         CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

FOR  GAS-WORKS,  POWER  STATIONS,  BOILER-HOUSES,  ETC. — XXVIII.  FLOOR 
AND  SILO  WAREHOUSES  FOR  GRAINS  AND  SEEDS. — XXIX.  COAL  STORES  AND 
COAL  SILOS. — XXX.  HIGH-LEVEL  CRANES. — INDEX. 

HOISTING   MACHINERY. 

An  Elementary  Treatise  on.  Including  the  Elements  of  Crane  Con- 
struction and  Descriptions  of  the  Various  Types  of  Cranes  in  Use.  By 
JOSEPH  HORNER,  A.M.I.M.E.,  Author  of  "Pattern-Making"  and  other 
Works.  Crown  8vo,  with  215  Illustrations,  including  Folding  Plates, 
cloth $3.00 

AERIAL   OR   WIRE-ROPE   TRAMWAYS. 

Their   Construction    and    Management.     By   A.    J.    WALLIS-TAYLER, 

A.M.Inst.C.E.     With  81  Illustrations.      12mo,  cloth $3.0O 

"An  excellent  volume,  and  a  very  good  exposition  of  the  various  systems 
of  rope  transmission  in  use  and  gives  as  well  not  a  little  valuable  informa- 
tion about  their  working,  repair,  and  management.  We  can  safely  recom- 
mend it  as  a  useful  general  treatise  on  the  subject." — Engineer. 

MODERN   MILLING    MACHINES. 

Their  Design,  Construction,  and  Working.  A  Handbook  for  Practical 
Men  and  Engineering  Students.  By  JOSEPH  HORNER,  A.M.I.Mech.E., 
Author  of  "Pattern-Making,"  etc.  With  269  Illustrations.  Demy 
8vo,  cloth.  [Just  Ready.] $4.00 

TOOLS   FOR   ENGINEERS   AND   WOODWORKERS. 

A  Practical  Treatise  including  Modern  Instruments  of  Measurement. 

By  JOSEPH  HORNER,  A.M.Inst.M.E.,  Author  of  "Pattern-Making,"  etc. 

Demy,  8vo,  with  456  Illustrations $3.0O 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS: — INTRODUCTION. — GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  TOOLS. — 
TOOL  ANGLES. — SEC.  I.  CHISEL  GROUP.— {CHISELS  AND  APPLIED  FORMS  FOR 
WOODWORKERS. — PLANES. — HAND  CHISELS  AND  APPLIED  FORMS  FOR  METAL 
WORKING. — CHISEL- LIKE  TOOLS  FOR  METAL  TURNING,  PLANING,  ETC. — 
SHEARING  ACTION  AND  SHEARING  TOOLS. — SEC.  II.  EXAMPLES  OF  SCRAPING 
TOOLS. — SEC.  III.  TOOLS. — RELATING  TO  CHISELS  AND  SCRAPERS. — SAWS. — 
FILES. — MILLING  CUTTERS. — BORING  TOOLS  FOR  WOOD  AND  METAL. — TAPS 
AND  DIES. — SEC.  IV.  PERCUSSIVE  AND  MOULDING  TOOLS. — PUNCHES,  HAM- 
MERS AND  CAULKING  TOOLS. — MOULDING  AND  MODELLING  TOOLS. — MISCEL- 
LANEOUS TOOLS. — SEC.  V.  HARDENING,  TEMPERING,  GRINDING,  AND  SHARP- 
ENING.— SEC.  VI.  TOOLS  FOR  MEASUREMENT  AND  TEST. — STANDARDS  OF 
MEASUREMENT. — SQUARES,  SURFACE  PLATES,  LEVELS,  BEVELS,  PROTRAC- 
TORS, &c. — SURFACE  GAUGES  OR  SCRIBING  BLOCKS. — COMPASSES  AND  DIVI- 
DERS.— CALIPERS,  VERNIER  CALIPERS,  AND  RELATED  FORMS. — MICROMETER 
CALIPERS. — DEPTH  GAUGES  AND  ROD  GAUGES. — SNAP,  CYLINDRICAL  AND 
LIMIT  GAUGES. — SCREW  THFEAD,  WIRE  AND  REFERENCE  GAUGES. — INDI- 
CATORS, ETC. 

ENGINEERS'   TURNING    IN    PRINCIPLE  &  PRACTICE. 

A  Handbook  for  Working  Engineers,  Technical  Students,  and  Amateurs. 

By  JOSEPH  HORNER,  A.M.I.Mech.E.,  Author  of  "Pattern-Making,"  etc. 

8vo,  cloth,  with  488  Illustrations $3.00 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS: — INTRODUCTION. — RELATIONS  OF  TURNERY  AND 
MACHINE  SHOP. — SEC.  I.  THE  LATHE,  ITS  WORK,  AND  TOOLS. — FORMS  AND 
FUNCTIONS  OF  TOOLS.  REMARKS  ON  TURNING  IN  GENERAL. — SEC.  II.  TURN- 
ING BETWEEN  CENTRES. — CENTRING  AND  DRIVING. — USE  OF  STEADIES. — 
EXAMPLES  OF  TURNING  INVOLVING  LINING-OUT  FOR  CENTRES. — MANDREL 
WORK. — SEC.  III.  WORK  SUPPORTED  AT  ONE  END. — FACE  PLATE  TURNING. 
ANGLE  PLATE  TURNING. — INDEPENDENT  JAW  CHUCKS. — CONCENTRIC,  UNI- 
VERSAL, TOGGLE,  AND  APPLIED  CHUCKS. — SEC.  IV.  INTERNAL  WORK. — 
DRILLING,  BORING,  AND  ALLIED  OPERATIONS. — SEC.  V.  SCREW  CUTTINGS 
AND  TURRET  WORK. — SEC.  VI.  MISCELLANEOUS. — SPECIAL  WORK. — MEAS- 
UREMENT, GRINDING.' — TOOL  HOLDERS. — SPEED  AND  FEEDS,  TOOL  STEEL. — 
STEEL  MAKERS'  INSTRUCTIONS. 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING,  &c.  3 

THE  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS'  REFERENCE  BOOK. 

For  Machine  and  Boiler  Construction.  In  Two  Parts.  Part  I.  GEN- 
ERAL ENGINEERING  DATA.  Part  II.  BOILER  CONSTRUCTION.  With 
51  Plates  and  numerous  Illustrations.  By  NELSON  FOLEY,  M.I.N.A. 
Third  Edition,  Revised  throughout,  and  much  Enlarged.  Folio,  half- 
bound In  Press 

PART  I:  MEASURES. — CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS,  &c. — SQUARES, 
CUBES,  FOURTH  POWERS. — SQUARE  AND  CUBE  ROOTS. — SURFACE  OF  TUBES. 
— RECIPROCALS. — LOGARITHMS. — MENSURATION. — SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  AND 
WEIGHTS. — WORK  AND  POWER. — HEAT. — COMBUSTION. — EXPANSION  AND 
CONTRACTION. — EXPANSION  OF  GASES. — STEAM. — STATIC  FORCES. — GRAVI- 
TATION AND  ATTRACTION. — MOTION  AND  COMPUTATION  OF  RESULTING 
FORCES. — ACCUMULATED  WORK. — CENTRE  AND  RADIUS  OF  GYRATION. — 
MOMENT  OF  INERTIA. — CENTRE  OF  OSCILLATION. — ELECTRICITY. — STRENGTH 
OF  MATERIALS. — ELASTICITY. — TEST  SHEETS  OF  METALS. — FRICTION. — 
TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER. — FLOW  OF  LIQUIDS. — FLOW  OF  GASES. — AIR 
PUMPS,  SURFACE  CONDENSERS,  &c. — SPEED  OF  STEAMSHIPS. — PROPELLERS. — 
CUTTING  TOOLS. — FLANGES. — COPPER  SHEETS  AND  TUBES. — SCREWS,  NUTS, 
BOLT  HEADS,  &c. — VARIOUS  RECIPES  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  MATTER. — WITH 
DIAGRAMS  FOR  VALVE-GEAR,  BELTING  AND  ROPES,  DISCHARGE  AND  SUC- 
TION PIPES,  SCREW  PROPELLERS,  AND  COPPER  PIPES. 

PART  II:  TREATING  OF  POWER  OF  BOILERS. — USEFUL  RATIOS — NOTES 
ON  CONSTRUCTION. — CYLINDRICAL  BOILER  SHELLS. — CIRCULAR  FURNACES. 
FLAT  PLATES. — STAYS. — GIRDERS. — SCREWS. — HYDRAULIC  TESTS. — Rr VET- 
ING. — BOILER  SETTING,  CHIMNEYS,  AND  MOUNTINGS. — FUELS,  &c. — EXAM- 
PLES OF  BOILERS  AND  SPEEDS  OF  STEAMSHIPS. — NOMINAL  AND  NORMAL 
HORSE  POWER. — WITH  DIAGRAMS  FOR  ALL  BOILER  CALCULATIONS  AND 
DRAWINGS  OF  MANY  VARIETIES  OF  BOILERS. 

THE   WORKS'  MANAGER'S   HANDBOOK. 

Comprising  Modern  Rules,  Tables,  and  Data.  For  Engineers,  Mill- 
wrights, and  Boiler  Makers;  Tool  Makers,  Machinists,  and  Metal 
Workers;  Iron  and  Brass  Founders,  etc.  By  W.  S.  HUTTON,  Civil 
and  Mechanical  Engineer,  Author  of  "The  Practical  Engineer's  Hand- 
book." Sixth  Edition,  carefully  Revised  and  Enlarged.  8vo,  strongly 

bound $6.00 

t^~  The  Author  having  compiled  Rules  and  Data  for  his  own  use  in  a  great 
variety  of  modern  engineering  work,  and  having  found  his  notes  extremely  use- 
ful, decided  to  publish  them — revised  to  date — believing  that  a  practical  work, 
suited  to  the  DAILY  REQUIREMENTS  OF  MODERN  ENGINEERS,  would  be  favorably 
received, 

"The  Author  treats  every  subject  from  the  point  of  view  of  one  who  has 
collected  workshop  notes  for  application  in  workshop  practice,  rather  than 
from  the  theoretical  or  literary  aspect.  The  volume  contains  a  great  deal 
of  that  kind  of  information  which  is  gained  only  by  practical  experience 
and  is  seldom  written  in  books." — The  Engineer. 

STEAM    BOILER   CONSTRUCTION. 

A  Practical  Handbook  for  Engineers,  Boiler-makers,  and  Steam  Users. 
Containing  a  large  Collection  of  Rules  and  Data  relating  to  Recent  Prac- 
tice in  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Working  of  all  Kinds  of  Stationary, 
Locomotive,  and  Marine  Steam-boilers.  By  WALTER  S.  HUTTON, 
Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer,  Author  of  "The  Works'  Manager's 
Handbook,"  "The  Practical  Engineer's  Handbook,"  &c.  With  up- 
wards of  500  Illustrations.  Fourth  Edition,  carefully  Revised  and 

Enlarged.     8vo,  over  680  pages,  cloth,  strongly  bound $6.00 

£^~This  Work  is  issued  in  continuation  of  the  series  of  handbooks 
•written  by  the  Author,  viz:  "THE  WORKS'  MANAGER'S  HANDBOOK"  and 
"THE  PRACTICAL  ENGINEER'S  HANDBOOK,"  which  are  so  highly  appreciated 
by  engineers  for  the  practical  nature  of  their  information,  and  is  consequently 
written  in  the  same  style  as  those  works. 

CONTENTS:  —  HEAT,  RADIATION,  AND  CONDUCTION,  No  N- CONDUCTIN^ 
MATERIALS,  AND  COVERINGS  FOR  STEAM  BOILERS. — COMPOSITION,  CALORIFIC 
POWER,  AND  EVAPORATIVE  POWER  OF  FUELS. — COMBUSTION,  FIRING  STEAM 
BOILERS,  PRODUCTS  OF  COMBUSTION,  &c. — CHIMNEYS  FOR  STEAM  BOILERS. — 


4          CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

STEAM  BLAST.— FORCE  DRAUGHT."-FEED  WATER. — EFFECT  OF  HEAT  ON 
WATER. — EXPANSION  OF  WATER  BY  HEAT. — WEIGHT  OF  WATER  AT  DIFFER- 
ENT TEMPERATURES.  —  CONVECTION.  —  CIRCULATION.  —  EVAPORATION. — 
PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  STEAM. — EVAPORATIVE  POWER  OF  BOILERS. — 
PRIMING,  &c. — WATER-HEATING  SURFACES  OF  STEAM  BOILERS. — TRANS- 
MISSION OF  HEAT. — SMOKE  TUBES. — EVAPORATIVE  POWERS  AND  EFFI- 
CIENCY OF  BOILERS. — WATER  CAPACITY  AND  STEAM  CAPACITY  OF  BOILERS. — 
FIRE-GRATES,  FIRE-BRIDGES,  AND  FIRE-BARS. — POWER  OF  BOILERS. — 
CYLINDRICAL  SHELLS  AND  FURNACE-TUBES  OF  BOILERS,  &c. 

TESTS  OF  MATERIALS. — STRENGTH  AND  WEIGHT  OF  BOILER-PLATES. — 
EFFECT  OF  TEMPERATURE  ON  METALS. — RIVET  HOLES. — RIVETS. — RIVET 
JOINTS  OF  STEAM  BOILERS. — CAULKING. — ENDS  OF  CYLINDRICAL  SHELLS. — 
STAYS  FOR  BOILERS,  &c. — STEAM  GENERATORS. — DESCRIPTION  AND  PRO- 
PORTIONS OF  CORNISH,  LANCASHIRE,  AND  OTHER  TYPES  OF  STATIONARY 
BOILERS.  —  BOILER  SETTING.  ^-  MULTITUBULAR  BOILERS. —  LOCOMOTIVE 
BOILERS. — PORTABLE  BOILERS. — MARINE  BOILERS. — VERTICAL  BOILERS. — 
WATER-TUBE  BOILERS. — SUPERHEATERS. — COST  OF  STEAM  PRODUCTION. — 
FURNACES  FOR  REFUSE  FUELS. — DESTRUCTORS,  &c. 

SAFETY-VALVES. — STEAM  PIPES. — STOP- VALVES,  AND  OTHER  MOUNTINGS 
FOR  BOILERS. — FEED  PUMPS. — STEAM  PUMPS. — FEED-WATER  CONSUMPTION. 
— INJECTORS. — INCRUSTATION  AND  CORROSION. — FEED-WATER  HEATERS. — 
EVAPORATORS.  —  TESTING  BOILERS.  —  EVAPORATIVE  PERFORMANCES  OF 
STEAM  BOILERS.  STEAM-BOILER  EXPLOSIONS,  &c. 

PLATING    AND    BOILER   MAKING, 

A  Practical  Handbook  for  Workshop  Operations.     By  JOSEPH  G.  HOR- 

NER,  A.M.I.M.E.     380  pp.  with  338  Illustrations.     12mo  cloth.  $3.OO 

CONTENTS: — THE  TRADE. — TOOLS. — MATERIALS. — TESTING  MATERIALS. — 

LIMITING    DIMENSIONS    AND    WEIGHTS    OF    MATERIALS. — CUTTING    AND 

STRAIGHTENING  PLATES,  &c. — BENDING  PLATES. — BENDING  ANGLES,  &c. — 

WELDING. —  FLANGING.  —  PUNCHING.  —  RIVETING.  —  TYPES  OF  RIVETED 

JOINTS. — ESTIMATION  OF  LENGTHS  OF  MATERIAL. — THE  MARKING  OUT  OF 

WORK. — THE  ESTIMATION  OF  WEIGHTS,  &c. — MACHINES. 

A   TREATISE  ON   STEAM    BOILERS. 

Their  Strength,  Construction,  and  Economical  Working.  By  R.  WIL- 
SON, C.E.  Fifth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth S3. 50 

"The  best  treatise  that  has  ever  been  published  on  steam  boilers." — En- 
gineer. 

BOILER  AND  FACTORY  CHIMNEYS. 

Their  Draught-Power  and  Stability.  With  a  chapter  on  Lightning  Con- 
ductors. By  ROBERT  WILSON,  A.I. C.E. ,  Author  of  "A  Treatise  on 
Steam  Boilers,"  etc.  12mo,  cloth $1.50 

BOILERMAKER'S   ASSISTANT 

In  Drawing,  Templating,  and  Calculating  Boiler  Work,  etc.  By  J. 
COURTNEY,  Practical  Boilermaker.  Edited  by  D.  K.  CLARK,  C.E. 
Seventh  Edition.  12mo,  cloth .80 

BOILERMAKER'S    READY    RECKONER. 

With  Examples  of  Practical  Geometry  and  Templating  for  the  Use  of 
Platers,  Smiths,  and  Riveters.  By  JOHN  COURTNEY.  Edited  by  D. 
K.  CLARK,  M.Inst.C.E.  Crown  8vo,  cloth $1.60 

BOILERMAKER'S   READY  RECKONER   &  ASSISTANT. 

With  Examples  of  Practical  Geometry  and  Templating  for  the  Use  of 
Platers,  Smiths,  and  Riveters.  By  JOHN  COURTNEY.  Edited  by  D.  K. 
CLARK,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fifth  Edition,  480  pp.,  with  140  Illustrations. 
Fcap.  8vo,  half -bound $3.00 

***  This  Work  consists  of  the  two  previous-mentioned  volumes,  "BOILER- 
MAKER'S ASSISTANT"  and  "BOILERMAKER'S  READY  RECKONER,"  bound 
together  in  One  Volume. 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING,  &>c.  5 

STEAM    BOILERS. 

Their  Construction  and  Management.  By  R.  ARMSTRONG,  C.E.  Illus- 
trated. Crown  8vo,  cloth (JQ 

THE    PRACTICAL    ENGINEER'S    HANDBOOK. 

Comprising  a  Treatise  on  Modern  Engines  and  Boilera;  Marine,  Loco- 
motive, and  Stationary.  And  containing  a  large  collection  of  Rules  and 
Practical  Data  relating  to  Recent  Practice  in  Designing  and  Construct- 
ing all  kinds  of  Engines,  Boilers,  and  other  Engineenng  Work.  The 
whole  constituting  a  comprehensive  Key  to  the  Board  of  Trade  and 
other  Examinations  for  Certificates  of  Competency  in  Modem  Mechan- 
ical Engineering.  By  WALTER  S.  HUTTON,  Civil  and  Mechanical  En- 
gineer, Author  of  "The  Works'  Manager's  Hand bopk  for  Engineers," 
&c.  With  upwards  of  420  Illustrations.  Sixth  edition,  Revised  and 

Enlarged.     Medium  8vo,  nearly  560  pp.,  strongly  bound $7.00 

y-&~  This  Work  is  designed  as  a  companion  to  the  Author's  *' WORKS' 
MANAGER'S  HANDBOOK."  It  possesses  many  new  and  original  features,  and 
contains,  like  its  predecessor,  a  quantity  of  matter  not  originally  intended  for 
publication,  but  collected  by  the  Author  for  his  own  use  in  the  construction  of  a 
great  variety  of  MODERN  ENGINEERING  WORK. 

The  information  is  given  in  a  condensed  and  concise  form,  and  is  illus- 
trated by  upwards  c/  420  Engravings;  and  comprises  a  quantity  of  tabulated 
matter  of  great  value  io  all  engaged  in  designing,  constructing,  or  estimating  for 
ENGINES,  BOILERS,  and  OTHER  ENGINEERING  WORK. 

TEXT-BOOK   ON   THE    STEAM    ENGINE. 

With  a  Supplement  on  GAS  ENGINES  and  PART  II.  on  HEAT  ENGINES 
By  T.  M.  GOODEVE,  M.A.,  Barrister-at-Law,  Professor  of  Mechanics  at 
the  Royal  College  of  Science,  London;  Author  of  "The  Principles  of 
Mechanics,"  "The  Elements  of  Mechanism,"  &c.  Fourteenth  Edition. 

Crown  8vo,  cloth $2.00 

"Professor  Goodeve  has  given  us  a  treatise  on  the  steam  engine  which  will 

bear  comparison  with  anything  written  by  Huxley  or  Maxwell,  and  we  can 

award  it  no  higher  praise." — Engineer. 

A    HANDBOOK   ON   THE   STEAM    ENGINE. 

With  especial  Reference  to  Small  and  Medium-sized  Engines.  For  the 
Use  of  Engine  Makers,  Mechanical  Draughtsmen,  Engineering  Students, 
and  users  of  Steam  Power.  By  HERMAN  HAEDER,  C.E.  Translated 
from  the  German,  with  additions  and  alterations,  by  H.  H.  P.  POWLES, 
A.M.I.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.  Third  Edition,  Revised.  With'  nearly  1,100 

Illustrations.     12mo,  cloth $3.00 

SUMMARY  OP  CONTENTS: — INTRODUCTION. — TYPES  OF  STEAM  ENGINES. — 
DETAILS  OF  STEAM  ENGINES. — GOVERNORS. — VALVE  GEARS. — CONDENSERS, 
AIR-PUMPS,  AND  FEED-PUMPS. — EXAMPLES  OF  ENGINES  OF  CONTINENTAL 
MAKE,  FROM  ACTUAL  PRACTICE. — PARTICULARS  OF  ENGINES  BY  ENGLISH 
MAKERS. — COMPOUND  ENGINES. — INDICATOR  AND  INDICATOR  DIAGRAMS. — 
CALCULATIONS  FOR  POWER  AND  STEAM  CONSUMPTION. —  EFFECT  OF  INERTIA 
ON  RECIPROCATING  PARTS  OF  ENGINES. — FRICTION  BRAKE  DYNAMOMETER — 
SUNDRY  DETAILS. — BOILERS. — INDEX. 

"  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  its  value.  We  cordially  commend  it 
to  all  concerned  in  the  design  and  construction  of  the  steam  engine." — 
Mechanical  World. 

THE    PORTABLE    ENGINE. 

A  Practical  Manual  on  its  Construction  and  Management,  for  the  use 
of  Owners  and  Users  of  Steam  Engines  generally.  By  WILLIAM  DYSON 

WANSBROUGH.  12mo,  cloth $1.50 

"This  is  a  work  of  value  to  those  who  use  steam  machinery.  .  .  .  Should 

be  read  by  every  one  who  has  a  steam  engine,  on  a  farm  or  elsewhere." — 

Mark  Lane  Express. 


6         CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
THE   STEAM    ENGINE. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Mathematical  Theory  of,  with  Rules  and  Examples 
for  Practical  Men.  By  T.  BAKER,  C.E.  12mo,  cloth (JO 

"Teems  with  scientific  information  with  reference  to  the  steam-engine." — 
Design  and  Work. 

THE    STEAM    ENGINE. 

For  the  use  of  Beginners.     By  Dr.  LARDNER.     12mo,  cloth.. .       .60 

LOCOMOTIVE    ENGINE    DRIVING. 

A  Practical  Manual  for  Engineers  in  Charge  of  Locomotive  Engines. 
By  MICHAEL  REYNOLDS,  M.S.E.  Twelfth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth 

boards $2.00 

"We  can  confidently  recommend  the  book,  not  only  to  the  practical  driver, 

but  to  every  one  who  takes  an  interest  in  the  performance  of  locomotive 

engines." — The  Engineer. 

THE    LOCOMOTIVE    ENGINE. 

The  Autobiography  of  an  Old  Locomotive  Engine.  By  ROBERT 
WEATHERBURN,  M.I.M.E.  With  Illustrations  and  Portraits  of  GEORGE 
and  ROBERT  STEPHENSON.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT. 

A  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Gradual  Improvements  made  in  Railway 
Engines  between  1803  and  1903.  By  CLEMENT  E.  STRETTON,  C.E. 

Sixth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

"Students  of  railway  history  and  all  who  are  interested  in  the  evolution 

of  the  modern  locomotive  will  find  much  to  attract  and  entertain  in  this 

volume." — The  Times. 

THE  MODEL  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER, 

Fireman,  and  Engine-Boy.  Comprising  a  Historical  Notice  of  the 
Pioneer  Locomotive  Engines  and  their  Inventors.  By  MICHAEL  REYN- 
OLDS. Second  Edition,  with  Revised  Appendix.  12mo,  cloth.  $2.00 
"We  should  be  glad  to  see  this  book  in  the  possession  of  every  one  in  the 

kingdom  who  has  ever  laid,  or  is  to  lay,  hands  on  a  locomotive  engine." — 

Iron. 

LOCOMOTIVE    ENGINES. 

A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on.  By  G.  D.  DEMPSEY,  C.E.  With  large 
Additions  treating  of  the  Modern  Locomotive,  by  D.  K.  CLARK, 

M.Inst.C.E.     With  Illustrations.       12mo,  cloth $.120 

"A  model  of  what  an  elementary  technical  book  should  be." — Academy. 

CONTINUOUS   RAILWAY   BRAKES. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  several  Systems  in  Use  in  the  United  King- 
dom; their  Construction  and  Performance.  By  M.  REYNOLDS.  8vo, 
cloth $3.50 

ENGINE-DRIVING   LIFE. 

Stirring  Adventures  and  Incidents  in  the  Lives  of  Locomotive  Engine- 
Drivers.  By  MICHAEL  REYNOLDS.  Third  Edition.  12mo,  cloth.  .60 

STATIONARY    ENGINE   DRIVING. 

A  Practical  Manual  for  Engineers  in  Charge  of  Stationary  Engines.  By 
MICHAEL  REYNOLDS,  M.S.E.  Seventh  Edition.  12mo,  cloth  boards. 

$2.00 

THE    CARE    AND     MANAGEMENT    OF     STATIONARY 
ENGINES. 

A  Practical  Handbook  for  Men-in-charge.  By  C.  HURST.  12mo.        .50 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING,  &c.  7 

THE   ENGINEMAN'S   POCKET  COMPANION 

and  Practical  Educator  for  Enginemen,  Boiler  Attendants,  and  Me- 
chanics. By  MICHAEL  REYNOLDS.  With  45  Illustrations  and  numer- 
ous Diagrams.  Fifth  Edition.  Royal  18mo,  strongly  bound  for 

Pocket  wear $1.50 

"A  most  meritorious  work,  giving  in  a  succinct  and  practical  form  all  the 

information  an  engine-minder,  desirous  of  mastering  the  scientific  principles 

of  his  daily  calling,  would  require." — The  Miller. 

THE   SAFE    USE   OF   STEAM. 

Containing  Rules  for  Unprofessional  Steam  Users.     By  an  ENGINEER. 

Eighth  Edition.     Sewed ' .35 

"If  steam-users  would  but  learn  this  little  book  by  heart,  boiler  explo- 
sions would  become  sensations  by  their  rarity." — English  Mechanic. 

STEAM   AND   MACHINERY   MANAGEMENT. 

A  Guide  to  the  Arrangement  and  Economical  Management  of  Machin- 
ery, with  Hints  on  Construction  and  Selection.  By  M.  Powis  BALE, 
M.Inst.M.E.  12mo,  cloth $1.OO 

GAS   AND   OIL   ENGINE   MANAGEMENT. 

A  Practical  Guide  for  Users  and  Attendants,  being  Notes  on  Selection, 
Construction,  and  Management.  By  M.  Powis  BALE,  M.Inst.C.E., 
M.I.Mech.E.  Author  of  "Woodworking  Machinery,"  &c.  12mo, 
cloth $1.50 

ON    GAS    ENGINES. 

With  Appendix  describing  a  Recent  Engine  with  Tube  Igniter.  By 
T.  M.  GOODEVE,  M.A.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

THE    ENGINEER'S   YEAR-BOOK   FOR    1906. 

Comprising  Formulae,  Rules,  Tables,  Data,  and  Memoranda  in  Civil, 
Mechanical,  Electrical,  Marine,  and  Mine  Engineering.  By  H.  R. 
KEMPE,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Principal  Staff  Engineer,  Engineer-in-Chief's 
Office,  General  Post  Office,  London;  Author  of  "A  Handbook  of  Elec- 
trical Testing,"  "The  Electrical  Engineer's  Pocket-Book,"  &c.  With 
1,000  Illustrations,  specially  Engraved  for  the  Work.  12mo,  950  pp., 
leather $3.00 

THE   MECHANICAL   ENGINEER'S   POCKET=BOOK. 

Comprising  Tables,  Formulae,  Rules,  and  Data:  a  Handy  Book  of  Ref- 
erence for  Daily  Use  in  Engineering  Practice.  By  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK, 
M.Inst.C.E.,  Fifth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised  and  Enlarged.  By  H.  H. 
P.  POWLES,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.  Small  8vo,  700  pp.,  leather. $3.0O 
SUMMARY  OP  CONTENTS: — MATHEMATICAL  TABLES. — MEASUREMENT  OF 
SURFACES  AND  SOLIDS. — ENGLISH  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. — FRENCH 
METRIC  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. — FOREIGN  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. — 
MONEYS. — SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT,  AND  VOLUME. — MANUFACTURED 
METALS. — STEEL  PIPES. — BOLTS  AND  NUTS. — SUNDRY  ARTICLES  IN  WROUGHT 
AND  CAST  IRON,  COPPER,  BRASS,  LEAD,  TIN,  ZINC. — STRENGTH  OF  MATER- 
IALS.— STRENGTH  OF  TIMBER. — STRENGTH  OF  CAST  IRON. — STRENGTH  OF 
WROUGHT  IRON. — STRENGTH  OF  STEEL. — TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  COPPER, 
LEAD,  &c. — RESISTANCE  OF  STONES  AND  OTHER  BUILDING  MATERIALS. — 
RIVETED  JOINTS  IN  BOILER  PLATES. — BOILER  SHELLS. — WIRE  ROPES  AND 
HEMP  ROPES — CHAINS  AND  CHAIN  CABLES. — FRAMING. — HARDNESS  OF 
METALS,  ALLOYS,  AND  STONES. — LABOUR  OF  ANIMALS. — MECHANICAL  PRIN- 
CIPLES.— GRAVITY  AND  FALL  OF  BODIES. — ACCELERATING  AND  RETARDING 
FORCES. — MILL  GEARING,  SHAFTING,  &c. — TRANSMISSION  OF  MOTIVE  POWER. 
—  HEAT.  —  COMBUSTION.  —  FUELS.  —  WARMING,  VENTILATION,  COOKING 
STOVES. — STEAM. — STEAM  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. — RAILWAYS. — TRAM- 
WAYS.— STEAM  SHIPS. — PUMPING  STEAM  ENGINES  AND  PUMPS. — COAL  GAS, 
GAS  ENGINES,  &c. — AIR  IN  MOTION. — COMPRESSED  AIR. — HOT-AIR  ENGINES. 
— WATER  POWER. — SPEED  OF  CUTTING  TOOLS. — COLOURS. — ELECTRICAL* 
ENGINEERING. 


8         CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &•  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
PRACTICAL   MECHANICS'    WORKSHOP   COMPANION. 

Comprising  a  great  Variety  of  the  most  useful  Rules  and  Formulae  in 
Mechanical  Science,  with  numerous  Tables  of  Practical  Data  and  Cal- 
culated Results  for  Facilitating  Mechanical  Operations.  By  WILLIAM 
TEMPLETON,  Author  of  "The  Engineer's  Practical  Assistant,"  &c.,  &c. 
Eighteenth  Edition,  Revised,  Modernised,  and  considerably  Enlarged, 
by  W.  S.  BUTTON,  C.E.,  Author  of  "The  Works'  Manager's  Hand- 
book," &c.  Fcap.  8vo,  nearly  500  pp.,  with  8  Plates  and  upwards  of 
250  Diagrams,  leather $2.50 

ENGINEER'S   AND   MILLWRIGHT'S   ASSISTANT. 

A  Collection  of  Useful  Tables,  Rules,  and  Data.  By  WILLIAM  TEMPLE  - 
TON.  Eighth  Edition,  with  Additions.  18mo,  cloth $1.00 

TABLES       AND    MEMORANDA       FOR        ENGINEERS, 

MECHANICS,  ARCHITECTS,  BUILDERS,  &c. 

Selected  and  Arranged  by  FRANCIS  SMITH.  Seventh  Edition,  Revised, 
including  ELECTRICAL  TABLES,  FORMULAE,  and  MEMORANDA.  Waist- 
coat-pocket size,  limp  leather f QQ 

THE   MECHANICAL    ENGINEER'S   COMPANION. 

Of  Areas,  Circumferences,  Decimal  Equivalents,  in  inches  and  feet,  mil- 
limetres, squares,  cubes,  roots,  &c.;  Strength  of  Bolts,  Weight  of  Iron, 
&c.;  Weights,  Measures,  and  other  Data.  Also  Practical  Rules  for 
Engine  Proportions.  By  R.  EDWARDS,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fcap.  8vo,  cloth. 

$1.00 
MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING   TERMS. 

(Lockwood's  Dictionary  of).  Embracing  those  current  in  the  Drawing 
Office,  Pattern  Shop,  Foundry,  Fitting,  Turning,  Smiths',  and  Boiler 
Shops,  &c.  Comprising  upwards  of  6,000  Definitions.  Edited  by  J. 
G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.M.E.  Third  Edition,  Revised,  with  Additions. 
12mo,  cloth i $3.00 

"Just  the  sort  of  handy  dictionary  required  by  the  various  trades  engaged 
in  mechanical  engineering.  The  practical  engineering  pupil  will  find  the 
book  of  great  value  in  his  studies,  and  every  foreman  engineer  and  mechanic 
should  have  a  copy." 

POCKET   GLOSSARY   OF   TECHNICAL   TERMS. 

English-French,  French-English;  with  Tables  suitable  for  the  Archi- 
tectural, Engineering,  Manufacturing,  and  Nautical  Professions.  By 
JOHN  JAMES  FLETCHER.  Fourth  Edition,  200  pp.  Waistcoat-pocket 
size,  limp  leather .(J0 

IRON    AND    STEEL. 

A  Work  for  the  Forge  Foundry,  Factory,  and  Office.  Containing  ready, 
useful,  and  trustworthy  Information  for  Ironmasters  and  their  Stock- 
takers;  Managers  of  Bar,  Rail,  Plate,  and  Sheet  Rolling  Mills;  Iron  and 
Metal  Founders;  Iron,  Ship, and  Bridge  Builders;  Mechanical,  Mining, 
and  Consulting  Engineers;  Architects,  Contractors,  Builders,  &c.  By 
CHARLES  HOARE,  Author  of  "The  Slide  Rule,"  &c.  Ninth  Edition. 
32mo,  leather $2.50 

WORKMAN'S  MANUAL  OF  ENGINEERING  DRAWING. 

By  JOHN  MAXTON,  Instructor  in  Engineering  Drawing,  Royal  Naval 
College,  Greenwich.  Eighth  Edition.  300  Plates  and  Diagrams. 

12mo,  cloth $1.40 

"A  copy  of  it  should  be  kept  for  reference  in  every  drawing  office." — En- 
gineering. 

PATTERN    MAKING. 

Embracing  the  Main  Types  of  Engineering  Construction,  and  including 
Gearing,  Engine  Work,  Sheaves  and  Pulleys,  Pipes  and  Columns,  Screws, 
Machine  Parts,  Pumps  and  Cocks,  the  Moulding  of  Patterns  in  Loam 
•  and  Greensand,  Weight  of  Castings,  &c.  By  J.  G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.M.E. 
Third  Edition,  Enlarged.  With 486  Illustrations.  12mo, cloth. $3.00 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING,  &c.  9 

SMITHY   AND    FORGE. 

Including  the  Farrier's  Art  and  Coach  Smithing.     By  W.  J.  E.  CRANE. 

12mo,  cloth $1.00 

"The  first  modern  English  book  on  the  subject.  Great  pains  have  been 
bestowed  by  the  author  upon  the  book;  shoeing-smiths  will  find  it  both 
useful  and  interesting." 

TOOTHED   GEARING. 

A  Practical  Handbook  for  Offices  and  Workshops.  By  J.  HORNER, 
A.M.I. M.E.  Second  Edition,  with  a  new  Chapter  on  Recent  Practice. 
With  184  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $2.25 

MODERN    WORKSHOP    PRACTICE, 

As  applied  to  Marine,  Land,  and  Locomotive  Engines,  floating  Docks, 
Dredging  Machines,  Bridges,  Shipbuilding,  &c.  By  J.  G.  WINTON. 
Fourth  Edition,  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth. : $1.40 

DETAILS   OF   MACHINERY. 

Comprising  Instructions  for  the  Execution  of  various  Works  in  Iron  in 
the  Fitting  Shop,  Foundry,  and  Boiler  Yard.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN, 
C.E.  12mo,  cloth $1.20 

ENGINEERING  ESTIMATES,  COSTS,  AND  ACCOUNTS. 

A  Guide  to  Commercial  Engineering.  With  numerous  examples  of  Es- 
timates and  Costs  of  Millwright  Work,  Miscellaneous  Productions, 
Steam  Engines  and  Steam  Boilers;  and  a  Section  on  the  Preparation 
of  Costs  Accounts.  By  A  GENERAL  MANAGER.  Second  Edition.  8vo, 
cloth $4.50 

MECHANICAL    ENGINEERING. 

Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Workshop 
Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  the  Steam  En- 
gine, &c.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.E.  Third  Edition.  12mo,  cloth 

$1.00 

LATHE-WORK. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Tools.  Appliances,  and  Processes  employed  in 
the  Art  of  Turning.  By  PAUL  N.  HASLUCK.  Eighth  Edition.  12mo, 

cloth $2.00 

"Written  by  a  man  who  knows  not  only  how  work  ought  to  be  done,  but 

who  also  knows  how  to  do  it,  and  how  to  convey  his  knowledge  to  others." — 

Engineering. 

SCREW-THREADS, 

And  Methods  of  Producing  Them.  With  numerous  Tables  and  com- 
plete Directions  for  using  Screw-cutting  Lathes.  By  PAUL  N.  HASLUCK, 
Author  of  "Lathe-work,"  &c.  Sixth  Edition.  Waistcoat-pocket  size. 

.60 

"Full  of  useful  information,  hints  and  practiral  criticism.  Taps,  dies, 
and  screwing  tools  generally  are  illustrated  and  their  action  described." 

CONDENSED    MECHANICS. 

A  Selection  of  Formulae,  Rules,  Tables,  and  Data  for  the  Use  of  Engi- 
neering Students,  <fcc.  By  W.  G.  C.  HUGHES,  A.M.I.C.E.  12mo,  cloth. 

$1.00 

MECHANICS   OF    AIR    MACHINERY. 

By  Dr.  J.  WEISBACH  and  Prof.  G.  HERRMANN.  Authorized  Translation 
with  an  Appendix  on  American  Practice  by  A.  TROWBRIDGE,  Ph.B., 
Adjunct  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  Columbia  University. 
Royal  8vo,  cloth. Net  $3.75 


io       CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
PRACTICAL   MECHANISM. 

And  Machine  Tools.  By  T.  BAKER,  C.E.  With  Remarks  on  Tools  and 
Machinery  by  J.  NASMYTH,  C.E.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

MECHANICS. 

Being  a  concise  Exposition  of  the  General  Principles  of  Mechanical 
Science  and  their  Applications.  By  C.  TOMLJNSON,  F.R.S.  12mo, 
cloth .60 

FUELS:   SOLID,    LIQUID,    AND   GASEOUS. 

Their  Analysis  and  Valuation.     For  the  use  of  Chemists  and  Engineers. 
By  H.  J.  PHILLIPS;  F.C.S-,  formerly  Analytical  and  Consulting  Chemist 
to  the  Great  Eastern  Railway.    Fourth  Edition.    12mo,  cloth .  .       .80 
"Ought  to  have  its  place  in  the  laboratory  of  every  metallurgical  estab- 
lishment and  wherever  fuel  is  used  on  a  large  scale." — Chemical  News. 

FUEL,    ITS   COMBUSTION   AND    ECONOMY. 

Consisting  of  an  Abridgment  of  "A  Treatise  on  the  Combustion  of  Coal 

and  the  Prevention  of  Smoke."       By  C.  W.  WILLIAMS,  A.Inst.C.E. 

With   extensive    Additions     by    D.    KINNEAR    CLARK,    M.Inst.C.E. 

Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.50 

"Students  should  buy  the  book  and  read  it,  as  one  of  the  most  complete 
and  satisfactory  treatises  on  the  combustion  and  economy  of  fuel  to  be 
had." — Engineer. 

STEAM  AND  THE  STEAM  ENGINE, 

Stationary  and  Portable.  Being  an  Extension  of  the  Treatise  on  the 
Steam  Engine  of  Mr.  J.  SEWELL.  By  D.  K.  CLARK,  C.E.  Fourth  Edi- 
tion. 12mo,  cloth $1.40 

"Every  essential  part  of  the  subject  is  treated  of  competently,  and  in  a 
popular  style." 

PUMPS   AND    PUMPING. 

A  Handbook  for  Pump  Users.  Being  Notes  on  Selection,  Construction, 
and  Management.  By  M.  Powis  BALE,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E. 

Fourth  Edition.     12mo,  cloth $1.50 

"  Thoroughly  practical  and  clearly  written." 

REFRIGERATION,   COLD   STORAGE,  &    ICE-MAKING. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Art  and  Science  of  Refrigeration.  By.  A. 
J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Author  of  "Refrigerating  and  Ice- 
Making  Machinery."  600  pp.,  with  360  Illustrations.  Medium  8vo, 

cloth $4.50 

CONTENTS: — CHAPTER  I.  INTRODUCTION. — II.  THE  THEORY  AND  PRAC- 
TICE OP  REFRIGERATION. — III.  THE  LIQUEFACTION  PROCESS. — IV.  THE 
VACUUM  PROCESS. — V.  THE  COMPRESSION  PROCESS  OR  SYSTEM. — VI.  THE 
COMPRESSION  PROCESS  (Continued). — VII.  THE  COMPRESSION  PROCESS  (Con- 
tinued).— VIII.  CONDENSERS  AND  WATER-COOLING  AND  SAVING  APPARATUS. 
— IX.  THE  ABSORPTION  AND  BINARY  ABSORPTION  PROCESS  OR  SYSTEM. — 
X.  THE  COLD-AIR  SYSTEM. — XI.  COCKS,  VALVES  AND  PIPE-JOINTS  AND 
UNIONS. — XII.  REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE. — XIII.  REFRIGERA- 
TION AND  COLD  STORAGE  (Continued). — XIV.  REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD 
STORAGE  (Continued). — XV.  REFRIGERATION  AND  COLD  STORAGE  (Con- 
tinued).— XVI.  MARINE  REFRIGERATION. — XVII.  MANUFACTURING,  IN- 
DUSTRIAL AND  CONSTRUCTIONAL  APPLICATIONS.— XVIII.  ICE-MAKING. — 

XIX.  THE  MANAGEMENT  AND  TESTING  OF  REFRIGERATING  MACHINERY. — 

XX.  COST  OF  WORKING.— XXI.  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  VERY  Low  TEMPER- 
ATURES.— XXII.  USEFUL  TABLES  AND  MEMORANDA. — APPENDIX. — BIBLI- 
OGRAPHY OF  REFRIGERATION. 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  SURVEYING,  &c.  n 

THE  POCKET  BOOK  OF  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE- 
MAKING. 

By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Author  of  "Refrigerating 
and  Ice-making  Machinery,"  &c.  Third  Edition,  Enlarged.  12mo, 
cloth $1.50 

REFRIGERATING    &    ICE-MAKING    MACHINERY. 

A  Descriptive  Treatise  for  the  Use  of  Persons  Employing  Refrigerating 
and  Ice-making  Installations,  and  others.  By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER, 

A.M.Inst.C.E.     Third  Edition,  Enlarged.     12mo,  cloth $3.00 

"May  be  recommended  as  a  useful  description  of  the  machinery,  the  proc- 
esses, and  of  the  acts,  figures,  and  tabulated  physics  of  refrigerating." — En- 
gineer. 

MOTOR   VEHICLES    FOR   BUSINESS    PURPOSES. 

A  Practical  Handbook  for  those  interested  in  the  Transport  of  Passen- 
gers and  Goods.  By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  With  134 
Illustrations.  Demy  8vo,  cloth [Just  published.]  $3.50 

MOTOR  CARS  OR  POWER-CARRIAGES  FOR  COMMON 

ROADS. 

By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  212  pp.,  with  76  Illustrations. 
12mo,  cloth $2.00 

AERIAL   NAVIGATION. 

A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Construction  of  Dirigible  Balloons,  AeYo- 
stats,  Aeroplanes,  and  Aeromotors.  By  FREDERICK  WALKER,  C.E., 
Associate  Member  of  the  Aeronautic  Institute.  With  104  Illustrations. 
Large  12mo,  cloth -$3.00 

STONE=WORKING    MACHINERY. 

A  Manual  dealing  with  the  Rapid  and  Economical  Conversion  of  Stone. 
With  Hints  on  the  Arrangement  and  Management  of  Stone  Works.  By 
M.  Powis  BALE,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E.  Second  Edition,  enlarged. 

12rno,  cloth : $3.50 

"The  book  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  mason  or  student  of  stone- 
work." 

"A  handbook  for  all  who  manipulate  stone  for  building  or  ornamental 
purposes." 

FIRES,  FIRE=ENGINES,    AND    FIRE    BRIGADES. 

With  a  History  of  Fire-Engines,  their  Construction,  Use,  and  Manage- 
ment; Foreign  Fire  Systems;  Hints  on  Fire-Brigades,  &c.  By  C.  F. 
T.  YOUNG,  C.E.  8vo,  cloth $8.00 

CRANES. 

The  Construction  of,  and  other  Machinery  for  Raising  Heavy  Bodies 

for  the  Erection  of  Buildings,  &c.     By  J.  GLYNN,  F.R.S.     12mo,  cloth. 

.60 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING,   SURVEYING,  ETC. 
PIONEER    IRRIGATION. 

A  Manual  of  Information  for  Farmers  in  the  Colonies.  By  E.  O.  MAW- 
SON,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Executive  Engineer,  Public  Works  Department, 
Bombay.  With  Additional  Chanters  on  Light  Railways  by  E.  R. 
CALTHROP,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.  Illustrated  by  numerous  Plates 

and  Diagrams.     Demy  8vo,  cloth $4.00 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS  : — VALUE  OP  IRRIGATION,  AND  SOURCES  OP  WATER 
SUPPLY. — DAMS  AND  WEIRS. — CANALS. — UNDERGROUND  WATER. — METH- 
ODS OF  IRRIGATION. — SEWAGE  IRRIGATION. — IMPERIAL  AUTOMATIC  SLUICE 
GATES. — THE  CULTIVATION  OF  IRRIGATED  CROPS,  VEGETABLES,  AND  FRUIT 
TREES.— LIGHT  RAILWAYS  FOR  HEAVY  TRAFFIC.— USEFUL  MEMORANDA  AND 
DATA. 


12        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &»  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
THE  RECLAMATION  OF  LAND  FROM  TIDAL  WATERS. 

A  Handbook  for  Engineers,  Landed  Proprietors,  and  others  interested 
in  Works  of  Reclamation.  By  A.  BEAZELY,  M.Inst.C.E.  8vo,  cloth. 

$4.00 

"The  book -shows  in  a  concise  way  what  has  to  be  done  in  reclaiming  land 
from  the  sea,  and  the  best  way  of  doing  it.  Contains  a  great  deal  of  prac- 
tical and  useful  information  which  cannot  fail  to  be  of  service  to  engineers 
entrusted  with  the  enclosure  of  salt  marshes,  and  to  landowners  intending 
to  reclaim  land  from  the  sea." — The  Engineer. 

THE   WATER   SUPPLY   OF   TOWNS   AND   THE   CON- 
STRUCTION OF  WATER-WORKS. 

A  Practical  Treatise  for  the  Use  of  Engineers  and  Students  of  Engineer- 
ing.    By  W.  K.  BURTON,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Consulting  Engineer  to  the 
Tokyo  Water-works.     Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Extended.    With 
numerous  Plates  and  Illustrations.    Super-royal  8vo,  buckram.  $9.()0 
I.  INTRODUCTORY. — II.  DIFFERENT  QUALITIES  OF  WATER. — III.  QUAN- 
TITY OF  WATER  TO  BE  PROVIDED. — IV.  ON  ASCERTAINING  WHETHER  A  PRO- 
POSED SOURCE  OF  SUPPLY  is  SUFFICIENT. — V.  ON  ESTIMATING  THE  STORAGE 
CAPACITY  REQUIRED  TO  BE  PROVIDED. — VI.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  WATER- 
WORKS.— VII.  IMPOUNDING  RESERVOIRS. — VIII.  EARTHWORK  DAMS. — IX. 
MASONRY  DAMS. — X.  THE  PURIFICATION  OF  WATER. — XI.  SETTLING  RES- 
ERVOIRS.— XII.  SAND   FILTRATION. — XIII.  PURIFICATION   OF  WATER   BY 
ACTION  OF  IRON,  SOFTENING  OF  WATER  BY  ACTION  OF  LIME,  NATURAL 
FILTRATION. — XIV.  SERVICE     OR    CLEAN  WATER     RESERVOIRS — WATER 
TOWERS — STAND  PIPES. — XV.  THE  CONNECTION  OF  SETTLING  RESERVOIRS, 
FILTER  BEDS  AND  SERVICE  RESERVOIRS. — XVI.  PUMPING  MACHINERY. — 

XVII.  FLOW   OF  WATER   IN  CONDUITS — PIPES  AND   OPEN  CHANNELS. — 

XVIII.  DISTRIBUTION  SYSTEMS. — XIX.  SPECIAL  PROVISIONS  FOR  THE  EX- 
TINCTION OF  FIRE. — XX.  PIPES  FOR  WATER- WORKS. — XXI.  PREVENTION 
OF  WASTE  OF  WATER. — XXII.  VARIOUS  APPLIANCES  USED  IN  CONNECTION 
WITH  WATER-WORKS. 

APPENDIX  I.  By  PROF.  JOHN  MILNE,  F.R.S.— CONSIDERATIONS  CON- 
CERNING THE  PROBABLE  EFFECTS  OF  EARTHQUAKES  ON  WATER- WORKS,  AND 
THE  SPECIAL  PRECAUTIONS  TO  BE  TAKEN  IN  EARTHQUAKE  COUNTRIES. 

APPENDIX  II.  By  JOHN  DE  RIJKE,  C.E.— ON  SAND  DUNES  AND  DUNE 
SAND  AS  A  SOURCE  OF  WATER  SUPPLY. 

THE   WATER   SUPPLY   OF   CITIES   AND   TOWNS. 

By  WILLIAM  HUMBER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  and  M.Inst.M.E.,  Author  of 
"Cast  and  Wrought  Iron  Bridge  Construction,"  &c.,  &c.  Illustrated 
with  50  Double  Plates,  1  Single  Plate,  Coloured  Frontispiece,  and  up- 
wards of  250  Woodcuts,  and  containing  400  pp.  of  Text.  Imp.  4to, 

elegantly  and  substantially  half-bound  in  morocco $45.00 

LIST  OF  CONTENTS: — I.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  SOME  OF  THE  MEANS  THAT 

HAVE  BEEN  ADOPTED    FOR  THE  SUPPLY  OF  WATER  TO  ClTIES  AND  TOWNS. 

II.  WATER  AND  THE  FOREIGN  MATTER  USUALLY  ASSOCIATED  WITH  IT. — III. 
RAINFALL  AND  EVAPORATION. — IV.  SPRINGS  AND  THE  WATER-BEARING 
FORMATIONS  OF  VARIOUS  DISTRICTS. — V.  MEASUREMENT  AND  ESTIMATION 

OF  THE  FLOW  OF  WATER. VI.    ON  THE  SELECTION  OF  THE  SOURCE  OF  SuP- 

PLY.  —  VII.  WELLS.  —  VIII.  RESERVOIRS.  —  IX.  THE  PURIFICATION  OF 
WATER.  —  X  PUMPS.  —  XI.  PUMPING  MACHINERY.  —  XII.  CONDUITS.  — 
XIII.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  WATER.— XIV.  METERS,  SERVICE  PIPES,  AND 
HOUSE  FITTINGS. — XV.  THE  LAW  AND  ECONOMY  OF  WATER- WORKS. — XVI. 
CONSTANT  AND  INTERMITTENT  SUPPLY. — XVII.  DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATES. — 
APPENDICES,  GIVING  TABLES  OF  RATES  OF  SUPPLY,  VELOCITIES,  &c.,  &c., 

TOGETHER  WITH  SPECIFICATIONS  OF  SEVERAL  WORKS  ILLUSTRATED,  AMONG 
WHICH  WILL  BE  FOUND:  ABERDEEN,  BlDEFORD,  CANTERBURY,  DUNDEE, 

HALIFAX,  LAMBETH,  ROTHERHAM,  DUBLIN,  AND  OTHERS. 

RURAL   WATER    SUPPLY. 

A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Supply  of  Water  and  Construction  of 
Water-works  for  small  Country  Districts.  By  ALLAN  GREENWELL, 
A.M.Inst.C.E.,  and  W.  T.  CURRY,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  F.G.S.  With  Illus- 
trations. Second  Edition,  Revised.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  SURVEYING,  &c.  13 

WATER    ENGINEERING. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Measurement,  Storage,  Conveyance,  and 
Utilization  of  Water  for  the  Supply  of  Towns,  for  Mill  Power,  and  for 
other  Purposes.  By  CHARLES  SLAGG,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Second  Edition. 
12mo,  cloth $3.00 

WATER  WORKS,  FOR  THE  SUPPLY  OF  CITIES  AND 

TOWNS. 

With  a  Description  of  the  Principal  Geological  Formations  of  England 
as  influencing  Supplies  of  Water.  By  SAMUEL  HUGHES.  12mo,  cloth. 

{(51.60 

POWER   OF   WATER. 

As  applied  to  drive  Flour  Mills,  and  to  give  motion  to  Turbines,  and 
other  Hydrostatic  Engines.  By  JOSEPH  GLYNN,  F.R.S.,  &c.  New 
Edition.  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth .80 

WELLS   AND   WELL-SINKING. 

By  J.  G.  SWINDELL,  A.R.I.B.A.,  and  G.  R.  BURNELL,  C.E.     Revised 

Edition.     12mo,  cloth .£0 

"Solid  practical  information,  written  in  a  concise  arid  lucid  style.  The 
work  can  be  recommended." 

HYDRAULIC    POWER    ENGINEERING. 

A  Practical  Manual  on  the  Concentration  and  Transmission  of  Power 
by  Hydraulic  Machinery.  By  G.  CROYDON  MARKS,  A.M.Inst.C.E. 
Second  Edition,  Enlarged,  with  about  240  Illustrations.  8vo,  cloth. 

[Just  Published.     $3.50 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS: — PRINCIPLES  OF  HYDRAULICS. — THE  FLOW  OF 
WATER. — HYDRAULIC  PRESSURES. — MATERIAL. — TEST  LOAD. — PACKINGS 
FOR  SLIDING  SURFACES. — PIPE  JOINTS. — CONTROLLING  VALVES. — PLATFORM 
LIFTS. — WORKSHOP  AND  FOUNDRY  CRANES. — WAREHOUSE  AND  DOCK 
CRANES. — HYDRAULIC  ACCUMULATORS. — PRESSES  FOR  BALING  AND  OTHER 
PURPOSES. — SHEET  METAL  WORKING  AND  FORGING  MACHINERY. — HY- 
DRAULIC RIVETERS. — HAND  AND  POWER  PUMPS. — STEAM  PUMPS. — TUR- 
BINES.— IMPULSE  TURBINES. — REACTION  TURBINES. — DESIGN  OF  TUR- 
BINES IN  DETAIL. — WATER  WHEELS. — HYDRAULIC  ENGINES. — RECENT 
ACHIEVEMENTS. — PRESSURE  OF  WATER. — ACTION  OF  PUMPS,  &c. 

HYDRAULIC    MANUAL. 

Consisting  of  Working  Tables  and  Explanatory  Text.  Intended  as  a 
Guide  in  Hydraulic  Calculations  and  Field  Operations.  By  Lowis 
D'A.  JACKSON,  Author  of  "Aid  to  Survey  Practice,"  "Modern  Metrol- 
ogy," &c.  Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged.  8vo,  cloth $6.00 

"The  author  has  constructed  a  manual  which  may  be  accepted  as  a  trust- 
worthy guide  to  this  branch  of  the  engineer's  profession." — Engineering. 

HYDRAULIC  TABLES,  CO-EFFICIENTS,  &  FORMULAE. 

For  Finding  the  Discharge  of  Water  from  Orifices,  Notches,  Weirs, 
Pipes,  and  Rivers.  With  New  Formulae,  Tables,  and  General  Informa- 
tion on  Rain-fall,  Catchment-Basins,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  Water  Sup- 
ply for  Towns  and  Mill  Power.  By  JOHN  NEVILLE,  C.E.,  M.R.I.A- 
Third  Edition,  revised,  with  additions.  Numerous  Illustrations. 

12mo,  cloth $5.00 

"It  is,  of  all  English  books  on  the  subject,  the  one  nearest  to  complete- 
ness." 

MASONRY  DAMS  FROM  INCEPTION  TO  COMPLETION. 

Including  numerous  Formulae,  Forms  of  Specifications  and  Tender, 
Pocket  Diagram  of  Forces,  &c.  For  the  use  of  Civil  and  Mining  En- 
gineers. By  C.  F.  Courtney,  M.Inst.C.E.  8vo,  cloth $3.50 

"Contains  a  good  deal  of  valuable  data.  Many  useful  suggestions  will  be 

found  in  the  remarks  on  site  and  position,  location  of  dam,  foundations 

and  conatuctiou." — Building  Newt. 


14        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
RIVER   BARS. 

The  Causes  of  their  Formation,  and  their  Treatment  by  "Induced  Tidal 
Scour";  with  a  Description  of  the  Successful  Reduction  by  this  Method 
of  the  Bar  at  Dublin.  By  I.  J.  MANN,  Assist.  Eng.  to  the  Dublin  Port 

and  Docks  Board.     Royal  8vo,  cloth $3.00 

"We  recommend  all  interested  in  harbour  works — and,  indeed,  those  con- 
cerned in  the  improvements  of  rivers  generally — to  read  Mr.  Mann's  inter- 
esting work." — Engineer. 

DRAINAGE    OF    LANDS,    TOWNS,  AND    BUILDINGS. 

By  G.  D.  DEMPSEY,  C.E.  Revised,  with  large  Additions  on  Recent 
Practice  in  Drainage  Engineering  by  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK,  M.lnst.C.E. 
Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.80 

SURVEYING    AS    PRACTISED    BY   CIVIL    ENGINEERS 

AND  SURVEYORS. 

Including  the  Setting-out  of  Works  for  Construction  and  Surveys 
Abroad,  with  many  Examples  taken  from  Actual  Practice.  A  Hand- 
book for  use  in  the  Field  and  the  Office,  intended  also  as  a  Text -book 
for  Students.  By  JOHN  WHITRLAW,  Jun.,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Author  of 
"Points  and  Crossings."  With  about  260  Illustrations.  Demy  8vo, 
cloth $4.00 

PRACTICAL   SURVEYING. 

A  Text-book  for  Students  preparing  for  Examination  or  for  Survey- 
work  in  the  Colonies.  By  OEOROE  W.  USII.L,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Eighth 
Edition,  thoroughly  Revised  and  Enlarged,  by  AIEX  BEAZELEY, 
M.Ihst.(  :.E.  With  4  Lithographic  Plates  and  360  Illustrations.  12mo, 
doth $3.00 

SURVEYING   WITH    THE   TACHEOMETER. 

A  practical  Manual  for  the  use  of  Civil  and  Military  Engineers  and  Sur- 
veyors, including  two  series  of  Tables  specially  computed  for  the  Re- 
duction of  Readings  in  Sexagesimal  and  in  Centesimal  Degrees.  By 
NEIL  KENNEDY,  M.lnst.C.E.  With  Diagrams  and  Plates.  Second 

Edition.     8vo,  cloth $4.00 

"The  work  is  very  clearly  written,  and  should  remove  all  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  any  surveyor  desirous  of  making  use  of  this  useful  and  rapid  instru- 
ment."— Nature. 

LAND   AND    ENGINEERING    SURVEYING. 

For  Students  and  Practical  Use.  By  T.  BAKER,  C.E.  Twentieth  Edi- 
tion, by  F.  E.  DIXON,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  With  Plates  and  Diagrams. 
12mo,  cloth .80 

AID   TO    SURVEY    PRACTICE. 

For  Reference  in  Surveying,  Levelling,  and  Setting-out;  and  in  Route 
Surveys  of  Travellers  by  Land  and  Sea.  With  Tables,  Illustrations, 
and  Records.  By  L.  D'A.  JACKSON,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Second  Edition. 
8vo,  cloth $5.00 

LAND    AND   MARINE    SURVEYING. 

In  Reference  to  the  Preparation  of  Plans  for  Roads  and  Railways; 
Canals,  Rivers,  Towns'  Water  Supplies;  Docks  and  Harbours.  With 
Description  and  Use  of  Surveying  Instruments.  By  W.  DAVIS  HASKOLI., 
C.E.  Second  Edition,  Re  vised  with  Additions.  Crown  8  vo,  cloth. 

$3.50 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  SURVEYING,  &c.  15 

ENGINEER'S  &   MINING   SURVEYOR'S   FIELD   BOOK. 

Consisting  of  a  Series  of  Tables,  with  Rules,  Explanations  of  Systems 
and  use  of  Theodolite  for  Traverse  Surveying  and  plotting  the  work 
with  minute  accuracy  by  means  of  Straight  Edge  and  Set  Square  only; 
Levelling  with  the  Theodolite,  Setting-out  Curves  with  and  without  the 
Theodolite,  Earthwork  Tables,  &c.  By  W.  DAVIS  HASKOLL,  C.E.  With 
numerous  Woodcuts.  Fifth  Edition,  Enlarged.  12mo,  cloth. $4. 5Q 
"The  book  is  very  handy;  the  separate  tables  of  sines  and  tangents  to 

every  minute  will  make  it  useful  for  many  other  purposes,  the  genuine 

traverse  tables  existing  all  the  same." 

AN    OUTLINE    OF    THE    METHOD    OF    CONDUCTING 
A  TRIGONOMETRICAL  SURVEY. 

For  the  Formation  of  Geographical  and  Topographical  Maps  and  Plans, 
Military  Reconnaissance,  LEVELLING,  &c.,  with  Useful  Problems, 
Formulae,  and  Tables.  By  Lieut.-General  FROMB,  R.E.  Fourth  Edi- 
tion, Revised  and  partly  Re-written  by  Major-General  Sir  CHARLES 
WARREN,  G.C.M.G.,  R.E.  With  19  Plates  and  115  Woodcuts.  8vo, 
doth $6.00 

PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE    OF    LEVELLING. 

Showing  itd  Application  to  Purposes  of  Railway  and  Civil  Engineering 
in  the  Construction  of  Roads;  with  Mr.  TEI.FORD'S  Rules  for  the  same. 
By  FREDERICK  W.  SIMMS,  M.Inst.C.E.  Eighth  Edition,  with  LAW'S 
Practical  Examples  for  Setting-out  Railway  Curves,  and  TRATJTWINE'S 
Field  Practice  of  Laying  out  Circular  Curves.  With  7  Plates  and  nu- 
merous Woodcuts.  8vo $52.50 

"The  text-book  on  levelling  in  most  of  our  engineering  schools  and  col- 
leges."— Engineer. 

"The  publishers  have  rendered  a  substantial  service  to  the  profession, 
especially  to  the  younger  members,  by  bringing  out  the  present  edition  of 
Mr.  Simm's  useful  work." — Engineering. 

TABLES  OF  TANGENTIAL  ANGLES  AND  MULTIPLES. 

For  Setting-out  Curves  from  5  to  200  Radius.  By  A.  BEAZELEY,M.Inst. 
C.E.  7th  Edition,  Revised.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  use  of  the 
Tables  for  Measuring  up  Curves.  Printed  on  50  Cards,  and  sold  in  a 

f^loth  box,  waistcoat-pocket  size $1.50 

"Each  table  is  printed  on  a  small  card,  which,  placed  on  the  theodolite, 

leaves  the  hands  free  to  manipulate  the  instrument — no  small  advantage 

as  regards  the  rapidity  of  work." 

"Very  handy;   a  man  may  know  that  all  his  day's  work  must  fall  on  two 

of  these  cards,  which  he  puts  into  his  own  card-case,  and  leaves  the  rest 

behind." 

PIONEER    ENGINEERING. 

A  treatise  on  the  Engineering  Operations  connected  with  the  Settle- 
ment of  Waste  Lands  in  New  Countries.  By  E.  DOBSON,  M.Inst.C.E. 

Second  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.80 

"Mr.  Dobson  is  familiar  with  the  difficulties  which  have  to  be  overcome 

in  this  class  of  work,  and  much  of  his  advice  will  be  valuable  to  young 

engineers  proceeding  to  our  colonies." — Engineering. 

TUNNELLING. 

A  Practical  Treatise.  By  CHARLES  PRELINI,  C.E.  With  additions  by 
CHARLRS  S.  HILL,  C.E.  With  150  Diagrams  and  Illustrations.  Royal 
8vo,  cloth $3.00 

PRACTICAL   TUNNELLING. 

Explaining  in  detail  Setting-out  the  Works,  Shaft-sinking,  and  Heading- 
driving,  Ranging  the  Lines  and  Levelling  underground,  Sub-Excavat- 
ing, Timbering  and  the  Construction  of  the  Brickwork  of  Tunnels.  By 
F.  W.  SIMM?.,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fourth  Edition.  Revised  and  Further  Ex- 
tended, including  the  most  recent  (1895)  Examples  of  Sub-aqueous  and 
other  Tunnels,  by  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK,  M.Inst.C.E.  With  34  Folding 
Plates  Imperial  8vo,  cloth $9.00 


16        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  6r-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
EARTH    AND    ROCK    EXCAVATION. 

A  Practical  Treatise,  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  C.E.  365  pp.,  with  Tables, 
many  Diagrams  and  Engravings.  Royal  8vo,  cloth. 

[Just  Published.     $3.00 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  ROADS  AND  STREETS. 

By  H.  LAW,  C.E.,  and  D.  K.  CLARK,  C.E.  Sixth  Edition,  revised,  with 
Additional  Chapters  by  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  12mo, 
cloth $2.50 

TRAMWAYS:  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  WORKING. 

Embracing  a  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System ;  with  an  exhaustive 
Analysis  of  the  Various  Modes  of  Traction,  including  Horse  Power, 
Steam,  Cable  Traction,  Electric  Traction,  &c.;  a  Description  of  the 
Varieties  of  Rolling  Stock;  and  ample  Details  of  Cost  and  Working 
Expenses.  New  Edition,  Thoroughly  Revised,  and  Including  the 
Progress  recently  made  in  Tramway  Construction,  &c.,  <fec.  By  D. 
KINNEAR  CLARK,  M.Inst.C.E.  With  400  Illustrations.  8vo,  780  pp., 
buckram $7.50 

HANDY    GENERAL    EARTH-WORK   TABLES. 

Giving  the  Contents  in  Cubic  Yards  of  Centre  and  Slopes  of  Cuttings 
and  Embankments  from  3  inches  to  80  feet  in  Depth  or  Height,  for  use 
with  either  66  feet  Chain  or  100  feet  Chain.  By  J.  H.  WATSON  BUCK, 
M.Inst.C.E.  On  a  sheet  mounted  in  cloth  case $1.50 

EARTHWORK   TABLES. 

Showing  the  Contents  in  Cubic  Yards  of  Embankments.  Cuttings,  &c., 
of  Heights  or  Depths  up  to  an  average  of  80  feet.  By  JOSEPH  BROAD- 
BENT,  C.E.,  and  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.E.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

"The  way  in  which  accuracy  is  attained,  by  a  simple  division  of  each  cross 

section  into  three  elements,  two  in  which  are  constant  and  one  variable,  is 

ingenious." 

A    MANUAL   ON    EARTHWORK. 

By  ALEX.  J.  GRAHAM,  C.E.  With  numerous  Diagrams.  Second  Edi- 
tion. 18mo,  cloth $1.00 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  LARGE  TUNNEL  SHAFTS. 

A  Practical  and  Theoretical  Essay.  By  J.  H.  WATSON  BUCK,  M.Inst. 
C.E.,  Resident  Engineer,  L.  and  N.  W.  R.  With  Folding  Plates,  8vo, 

eloth $4.80 

"Many  of  the  methods  given  are  of  extreme  practical  value  to  the  mason, 
and  the  observations  on  the  form  of  arch,  the  rules  for  ordering  the  stone, 
and  the  construction  of  the  templates,  will  be  found  of  considerable  use." 

ESSAY    ON    OBLIQUE    BRIDGES 

(Practical  and  Theoretical. )  With  13  large  Plates.  By  the  late  GEORGE 
WATSON  BUCK,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fourth  Edition,  revised  by  his  Son,  J,  H. 
WATSON  BUCK,  M.Inst  C.E  ;  and  with  the  addition  of  Description  to 
Diagrams  for  Facilitating  the  Construction  of  Oblique  Bridges,  by  W. 
H.  BARLOW,  M.Inst.C.E  Royal  8vo,  cloth $4.80 

CAST    &    WROUGHT    IRON    BRIDGE   CONSTRUCTION 

(A  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise  on),  including  Iron  Foundations. 
In  Three  Parts. — Theoretical,  Practical,  and  Descriptive.  By  WIL- 
LIAM HUMBER,  A.M.Inst.C.E..  and  M.Inst. M.E.  Third  Edition. 're vised 
and  much  improved,  with  115  Double  Plates  (20  of  which  now  first 
appear  in  thi?  edition ),  and  numerous  Additions  to  the  Text.  In  2  vols.. 
imp.  4to,  half-bound  in  morocco $50.00 

IRON    BRIDGES   OF    MODERATE    SPAN: 

Their  Construction  and  Erection,  By  H.  W.  PENDRED  With  40  Il- 
lustrations. 12mo,  cloth 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  SURVEYING,  &c.  i? 

IRON   AND    STEEL   BRIDGES   AND    VIADUCTS. 

A  Practical  Treatise  upon  their  Construction.  For  the  use  of  Engi- 
neers, Draughtsmen,  and  Students.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.E.  12mo, 
doth $1.4O 

TUBULAR   AND    OTHER    IRON    GIRDER    BRIDGES, 

Describing  the  Britannia  and  Conway  Tubular  Bridges.  With  a 
Sketch  of  Iron  Bridges,  &c.  By  G.  D.  DEMPSEY,  C.E.  12mo,  cloth, 

.80 

GRAPHIC   AND    ANALYTIC   STATICS. 

In  Their  Practical  Application  to  the  Treatment  of  Stresses  in  Roofs, 
Solid  Girders,  Lattice,  Bowstring,  and  Suspension  Bridges,  Braced 
Iron  Arches  and  Piers,  and  other  Frameworks.  By  R.  HUDSON 
GRAHAM,  C.E.  Containing  Diagrams  and  Plates  to  Scale.  With  num- 
erous Examples,  many  taken  from  existing  Structures.  Specially 
arranged  for  Class-work  in  Colleges  and  Universities.  Second  Edition, 
Revised  and  Enlarged.  8vo,  cloth $6.0O 

WEIGHTS  OF  WROUGHT   IRON   &  STEEL  GIRDERS. 

A  Graphic  Table  for  Facilitating  the  Computation  of  the  Weights  of 
Wrought  Iron  and  Steel  Girders,  &c.,  for  Parliamentary  and  other 
Estimates.  By  J.  H.  WATSON  BUCK,  M.Inst.C.E.  On  a  sheet.  $1.00 

GEOMETRY    FOR   TECHNICAL    STUDENTS. 

An  Introduction  to  Pure  and  Applied  Geometry  and  the  Mensuration 
of  Surfaces  and  Solids,  including  Problems  in  Plane  Geometry  useful  in 
Drawing.  By  E.  H.  SPRAGUE,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  12mo,  cloth.  . .  .50 

PRACTICAL   GEOMETRY. 

For  the  Architect,  Engineer,  and  Mechanic.  Giving  Rules  for  the  Delin- 
eation and  Application  of  various  Geometrical  Lines,  Figures,  and 

Curves.  By  E.  W.  TARN,  M.A.,  Architect.  8vo,  cloth S3. 50 

"No  book  with  the  same  objects  in  view  has  ever  been  published  in  which 

the  clearness  of  the  rules  laid  down  and  the  illustrative  diagrams  have  been 

so  satisfactory." — Scotsman. 

THE    GEOMETRY   OF   COMPASSES. 

Or,  Problems  Resolved  by  the  mere  Description  of  Circles  and  the  Use 
of  Coloured  Diagrams  and  Symbols.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  Coloured 
Plates.  12mo,  cloth $1.50 

MENSURATION    AND    MEASURING. 

With  the  Mensuration  and  Levelling  of  Land  for  the  purposes  of  Modern 
Engineering.  By  T.  BAKER,  C.E.  New  Edition  by  E.  NUGENT,  C.E. 
12mo,  cloth .60 

HANDY   BOOK  FOR  THE  CALCULATION  OF  STRAINS 

In  Girders  and  Similar  Structures  and  their  Strength.  Consisting  of 
Formulae  and  Corresponding  Diagrams,  with  numerous  details  for  Prac- 
tical Application,  &c.  By  WILLIAM  HUMBER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  &c.  Sixth 
Edition.  12mo,with  nearly  100  Woodcuts  and  3  Plates,  cloth.  $2.50 

THE    STRAINS   ON    STRUCTURES   OF    IRONWORK. 

With  Practical  Remarks  on  Iron  Construction.  By  F.  W.  SHIELDS, 
M.Inst.C.E.  Svo,  cloth $2.00 

CONSTRUCTIONAL    IRON    AND    STEEL   WORK, 

As  applied  to  Public,  Private,  and  Domestic  Buildings.  By  FRANCIS 
CAMPIN,  C.E.  12mo,  cloth $1.40 


i8        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
MATERIALS   AND   CONSTRUCTION. 

A  Theoretical  and  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Strains,  Designing,  and 
Erection  of  Works  of 'Construction.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.E.  Third 

Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.20 

"No  better  exposition  of  the  practical  application  of  the  principles  of 

construction  has  yet  been  published  to  our  knowledge  in  such  a  cheap 

comprehensive  form." — Building  News. 

EXPERIMENTS   ON    THE    FLEXURE   OF    BEAMS. 

Resulting  in  the  Discovery  of  New  Laws  of  Failure  by  Buckling.  By 
ALBERT  E.  GUY.  Medium  8vo,  cloth Net  $1.25 

TRUSSES   OF   WOOD    AND    IRON. 

Practical  Applications  of  Science  in  Determining  the  Stresses,  Breaking 
Weights,  Safe  Loads,  Scantlings,  and  Details  of  Construction.  With 
Complete  Working  Drawings.  By  W.  GRIFFITHS,  Surveyor.  Oblong, 

8vo,  cloth $1.80 

"This  handy  little  book  enters  so  minutely  into  every  detail  connected 

with   the  construction  of.  roof  trusses  that  no  student  need  be  ignorant  of 

these  matters." — Practical  Engineer. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  ROOFS,  OF  WOOD  AND  IRON: 

Deduced  chiefly  from  the  Works  of  Robison,  Tredgold,  and  Humber. 

By  E.  W.  TARN,  M.A.,  Architect.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth.  .(JO 
"Mr.  Tarn  is  so  thoroughly  master  of  his  subject,  that  although  the  trea- 
tise was  founded  on  the  works  of  others  he  has  given  it  a  distinct  value  of 
his  own.  It  will  be  found  valuable  by  all  students." — Builder. 

A   TREATISE   ON   THE   STRENGTH   OF  MATERIALS. 

With  Rules  for  Application  in  Architecture,  the  Construction  of  Sus- 
pension Bridges,  Railways,  &c.  By  PETER  BARLOW,  F.R.S.  A  new 
Edition,  revised  by  his  Sons,  P.  W.  BARLOW,  F.R.S. ,  and  W.  H.  BARLOW. 
F.R.S. ;  to  which  are  added,  Experiments  by  HODGKINSON,  FAIRBAIRN, 
and  KIRKALDY;  and  Formulae  for  calculating  Girders,  &c.  Edited  by 
WM.  HUMBER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  8vo,  400  pp.,  with  19  Plates  and  numer- 
ous Woodcuts,  cloth $7.00 

"Valuable  alike  to  the  student,  tyro,  and  the  experienced  practitioner,  it 

will  always  rank  in  future  as  it  has  hitherto  done,  as  the  standard  treatise 

on  that  particular  subject." — Engineer. 

EXPANSION    OF   STRUCTURES   BY    HEAT. 

By  JOHN  KEILY,  C.E.,  late  of  the  Indian  Public  Works  Department. 

12mo,  cloth $1.50 

"The  aim  the  author  has  set  before  him,  viz.,  to  show  the  effects  of  heat 
upon  metallic  and  other  structures,  is  a  laudable  one,  for  this  is  a  branch  of 
physics  upon  which  the  engineer  or  architect  can  find  but  little  reliable  and 
comprehensive  data  in  books." — Builder. 

CIVIL    ENGINEERING. 

By  HENRY  LAW,  M.Inst.C.E.  Including  a  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  En- 
gineering by  G.  R.  BURNELL,  M.Inst.C.E.  Seventh  Edition,  revised, 
with  Large  Additions  on  Recent  Practice  by  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK, 
M.Inst.C.E.  12mo,  cloth $2.60 

GAS  WORKS, 

Their  Construction  and  Arrangement,  and  the  Manufacture  and  Distri- 
bution of  Coal  Gas.  By  S.  HUGHES,  C.E.  Ninth  Edition.  Revised, 
with  Notices  of  Recent  Improvements  by  HENRY  O'CONNOR,  A.M.Inst. 

C.E.     12mo,  cloth $2.40 

"Of  infinite  service  alike  to  manufacturers,  distributors,  and  consumers." 


MARINE  ENGINEERING,  NAVIGATION,  &c.        19 
PNEUMATICS, 

Including  Acoustics  and  the  Phenomena  of  Wind  Currents,  for  the  use 
of  Beginners.     By  CHARLES  TOMLINSON,  F.R.S.     12mo,  cloth .        .60 

FOUNDATIONS   AND   CONCRETE    WORKS. 

With  Practical  Remarks  on  Footings,  Planking,  Sand,  Concrete,  Bdton, 
Pile-driving,  Caissons,  and  Cofferdams.    By  E.  DOBSON.    12mo.        tQQ 

BLASTING    AND    QUARRYING    OF   STONE, 

For  Building  and  other  Purposes.     With  Remarks  on  the  Blowing  up  of 
Bridges.     By  Gen.  Sir  J.  BURGOYNE,  K.C.B.     12mo,  cloth.  .  . .        tQQ 

SAFE    RAILWAY    WORKING. 

A  Treatise  on  Railway  Accidents,  their  Cause  and  Prevention;   with  a 
Description   of   Modern   Appliances   and   Systems.     By  CLEMENT   E. 

STRETTON,  C.E.     Third  Edition,  Enlarged.     12mo,  cloth $1.50 

"A  book  for  the  engineer,  the  directors,  the  managers;   and,  in  short,  all 


who  wish  for  information  on  railway  matters  will  find  a  perfect  encyclopaedia 
ife  Railway  Working.'" — Railway  Review. 


'Safe 


MARINE  ENGINEERING,  SHIPBUILDING, 
NAVIGATION,   ETC. 


MARINE    ENGINES   AND    BOILERS. 

Their  Design  and  Construction.  A  Handbook  for  the  Use  of  Students, 
Engineers,  and  Naval  Constructors.  Based  on  the  Work  "Berechnung 
und  Konstruktion  der  Schiffsmaschinen  und  Kessel,"  by  Dr.  G.  BAUER, 
Engineer-in-Chief  of  the  Vulcan  Shipbuilding  Yard,  Stettin.  Translated 
from  the  Second  German  Edition  by  E.  M.  DONKIN,  and  S.  BRYAN 
DONKIN,  A.M. I. C.E.  Edited  by  LESLIE  S.  ROBERTSON,  Secretary  to 
the  Engineering  Standards  Committee,  M.I.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.,  M.I.N.A., 
&c.  With  numerous  Illustrations  and  Tables.  Thick  8vo,  cloth, 

[Just  Published.     $9.00 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS:— PART  I.— MAIN  ENGINES.— DETERMINA- 
TION OF  CYLINDER  DIMENSIONS. — THE  UTILISATION  OF  STEAM  IN  THE  EN- 
GINE.— STROKE  OF  PISTON. — NUMBER  OF  REVOLUTIONS. — TURNING  MOMENT. 
— BALANCING  OF  THE  MOVING  PARTS. — ARRANGEMENT  OF  MAIN  ENGINES. — 
DETAILS  OF  MAIN  ENGINES. — THE  CYLINDER. — VALVES. — VARIOUS  KINDS 
OF  VALVE  GEAR. — PISTON  RODS. — PISTONS. — CONNECTING  ROD  AND  CROSS- 
HEAD. — VALVE  GEAR  RODS. — BED  PLATES. — ENGINE  COLUMNS. — REVERS- 
ING AND  TURNING  GEAR.  PART  II. — PUMPS. — AIR,  CIRCULATING  FEED, 
AND  AUXILIARY  PUMPS.  PART  III.— SHAFTING,  RESISTANCE  OF 
SHIPS,  PROPELLERS. — THRUST  SHAFT  AND  THRUST  BLOCK. — TUNNEL- 
SHAFTS  AND  PLUMMER  BLOCKS. — SHAFT  COUPLINGS. — STERN  TUBE. — THE 
SCREW  PROPELLER. — CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  SCREW.  PART  IV. — PIPES 
AND  CONNECTIONS.— GENERAL  REMARKS,  FLANGES,  VALVES,  &c.— 
UNDER  WATER  FITTINGS. — MAIN  STEAM,  AUXILIARY  STEAM,  AND  EXHAUST 
PIPING.— FEED  WATER,  BILGE,  BALLAST  AND  CIRCULATING  PIPES.  PART 
V. — STEAM  BOILERS. — FIRING  AND  THE  GENERATION  OF  STEAM. — 
CYLINDRICAL  BOILERS. — LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS. — WATER-TUBE  BOILERS. — 
SMALL  TUBE  WATER-TUBE  BOILERS. — SMOKE  Box. — FUNNEL  AND  BOILER 
LAGGING.  —  FORCED  DRAUGHT.  —  BOILER  FITTINGS  AND  MOUNTINGS. 
PART  VI.— MEASURING  INSTRUMENTS.  PART  VII.— VARIOUS 
DETAILS. — BOLTS,  NUTS,  SCREW  THREADS,  &c. — PLATFORMS,  GRATINGS, 
LADDERS. — FOUNDATIONS. — SEATINGS. — LUBRICATION.  —  VENTILATION  OF 
ENGINE  ROOMS.— RULES  FOR  S.PARE  GEAR.  PART  VIII.— ADDITIONAL 
TABLES. 


20        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
THE     NAVAL     ARCHITECT'S     AND     SHIPBUILDER'S 

POCKET-BOOK 

Of  Formulae,  Rules,  and  Tables,  and  Marine  Engineer's  and  Surveyor's 
Handy  Book  of  Reference.  By  CLEMENT  MACKROW,  M.I.N.A.  Eighth 
Edition,  carefully  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Fcap,  leather.  .  Net  $5.00 
SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS: — SIGNS  AND  SYMBOLS,  DECIMAL  FRACTIONS. — 
TRIGONOMETRY. — PRACTICAL  GEOMETRY. — MENSURATION. — CENTRES  AND 
MOMENTS  OF  FIGURES. — MOMENTS  OF  INERTIA  AND  RADII  GYRATION. — AL- 
GEBRAICAL EXPRESSIONS  FOR  SIMPSON'S  RULES. — MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES. 
— CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY. — LAWS  OF  MOTION. — DISPLACEMENT,  CENTRE  OF 
BUOYANCY. — CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY  OF  SHIPS'  HULL. — STABILITY  CURVES  AND 
METACENTRES. — SEA  AND  SHALLOW-WATER  WAVES. — ROLLING  OF  SHIPS. — 
PROPULSION  AND  RESISTANCE  OF  VESSELS. — SPEED  TRIALS. — SAILING,  CEN- 
TRE OF  EFFORT. — DISTANCES  DOWN  RIVERS,  COAST  LINES. — STEERING  AND 
RUDDERS  OF  '  VESSELS. — LAUNCHING  CALCULATIONS  AND  VELOCITIES. — 
WEIGHT  OF  MATERIAL  AND  GEAR. — GUN  PARTICULARS  AND  WEIGHT. — 
STANDARD  GAUGES. — RIVETED  JOINTS  AND  RIVETING. — STRENGTH  AND 
TESTS  OF  MATERIALS. — BINDING  AND  SHEARING  STRESSES. — STRENGTH  OF 
SHAFTING,  PILLARS,  WHEELS,  &c. — HYDRAULIC  DATA,  &c. — CONIC  SEC- 
TIONS, CATENARIAN  CURVES. — MECHANICAL  POWERS,  WORK. — BOARD  OF 
TRADE  REGULATIONS  FOR  BOILERS  AND  ENGINES. — BOARD  OF  TRADE  REG- 
ULATIONS FOR  SHIPS. — LLOYD'S  RULES  FOR  BOILERS. — LLOYD'S  WEIGHT  OF 
CHAINS. — LLOYD'S  SCANTLINGS  FOR  SHIPS. — DATA  OF  ENGINES  AND  VES- 
SELS.— SHIPS'  FITTINGS  AND  TESTS. — SEASONING  PRESERVING  TIMBER. — 
MEASUREMENT  OF  TIMBER. — ALLOYS,  PAINTS,  VARNISHES. — DATA  FOR  STOW- 
AGE.— ADMIRALTY  TRANSPORT  REGULATIONS. — RULES  FOR  HORSE-POWER, 
SCREW  PROPELLERS,  &c. — PERCENTAGES  FOR  BUTT  STRAPS. — PARTICULARS 
OF  YACHTS. — MASTING  AND  RIGGING. — DISTANCES  OF  FOREIGN  PORTS. — 
TONNAGE  TABLES.— VOCABULARY  OF  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH  TERMS. — ENGLISH 
WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. — FOREGN  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. — DECIMAL 
EQUIVALENTS. — USEFUL  NUMBERS. — CIRCULAR  MEASURES. — AREAS  OF  AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES  OF  CIRCLES. — AREAS  OF  SEGMENTS  OF  CIRCLES. — TABLES 
OF  SQUARES  AND  CUBES  AND  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS. — TABLES  OF  LOGARITHMS 
OF  NUMBERS. — TABLES  OF  HYBERPOLIC  LOGARITHMS. — TABLES  OF  NATURAL 
SINES,  TANGENTS. — TABLES  OF  LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  TANGENTS,  &c. 

WANNAN'S   MARINE   ENGINEER'S   GUIDE 

To  Board  of  Trade  Examinations  for  Certificates  of  Competency.  Con- 
taining all  Latest  Questions  to  Date,  with  Simple,  Clear,  and  Correct 
Solutions;  302  Elementary  Questions  with  Illustrated  Answers,  and 
Verbal  Questions  and  Answers;  complete  Set  of  Drawings  with  State- 
ments completed.  By  A.  C.  WANNAN,  C.E.,  Consulting  Engineer,  and 
E.  W.  I.  WANNAN,  M.I.M.E.,  Certificated  First  Class  Marine  Engineer. 
With  numerous  Engravings.  Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged.  500  pages. 
8vo,  cloth $4.00 

WANNAN'S   MARINE   ENGINEER'S   POCKET=BOOK. 

Containing  Latest  Board  of  Trade  Rules  and  Data  for  Marine  Engineers. 
By  A.  C.  WANNAN.  Third  Edition,  Revised,  Enlarged,  and  Brought  up 
to  Date.  Square  18mo,  with  thumb  Index,  leather $2.00 

MARINE    ENGINES   AND    STEAM    VESSELS. 

By  R.  MURRAY,  C.E.  Eighth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised,  with  Addi- 
tions by  the  Author  and  by  GEORGE  CARLISLE,  C.E.  12mo,  cloth.  $1.80 

ELEMENTARY   MARINE    ENGINEERING. 

A  Manual  for  Young  Marine  Engineers  and  Apprentices.  By  J.  S. 
BREWER.  12mo,  cloth .60 

CHAIN   CABLES   AND   CHAINS. 

Comprising  Sizes  and  Curves  9f  Links,  Studs,  &c.,  Iron  for  Cables  and 
Chains,  Chain  Cable  and  Chain  Making,  Forming  and  Welding  Links, 
Strength  of  Cables  and  Chains,  Certificates  for  Cables,  Marking  Cables, 
Prices  of  Chain  Cables  and  Chains,  Historical  Notes,  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment, Statutory  Tests,  Charges  for  Testing,  List  of  Manufacturers  of 


MARINE  ENGINEERING,  NAVIGATION,  &c.       21 

Cables,  &c.,  &c.  By  THOMAS  W.  TRAILL,  F.E.R.N.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  En- 
gineer-Surveyor-in-Chief ,  Board  of  Trade,  Inspector  of  Chain  Cable  and 
Anchor  Proving  Establishments,  and  General  Superintendent,  Lloyd's 
Committee  on  Proving  Establishments.  With  numerous  Tables,  Illus- 
trations, and  Lithographic  Drawings.  Folio,  cloth $15.00 

THE    SHIPBUILDING    INDUSTRY   OF   GERMANY. 

Compiled  and  Edited  by  G.  LEHMANN-FELSKOWSKI.  With  Coloured 
Prints,  Art  Supplements,  and  numerous  Illustrations  throughout  the 
text.  Super-royal  4to,  cloth $4.20 

SHIPS    AND    BOATS. 

By  W.  BLAND.  With  numerous  Illustrations  and  Models.  Tenth  Edi- 
tion. 12mo,  cloth tQ() 

SHIPS    FOR   OCEAN    AND    RIVER   SERVICE, 

Principles  of  the  Construction  of.     By  H.  A.  SOMMEKFELDT.     12mo. 

.60 
AN    ATLAS   OF    ENGRAVINGS 

To  illustrate  the  above.  Twelve  large  folding  Plates.  Royal  4to, 
doth $3.00 

NAVAL   ARCHITECTURE. 

An  Exposition  of  the  Elementary  Principles.  By  J.  PEAKE.  12mo 
doth $1.40 

THE    ART   AND    SCIENCE   OF    SAILMAKING. 

By  SAMUEL  B.  SADLER,  Practical  Sailmaker,  late  in  the  employment  of 
Messrs.  Ilatsey  and  Lapthorne,  of  Cowes  and  Gosport.  Plates.  4to, 

cloth $5.0  J 

"This  extremely  practical  work  gives  a  complete  education  in  all  the 
branches  of  the  manufacture,  cutting  out,  roping,  seaming,  and  goring.  It 
s  copiously  illustrated,  and  forms  a  first-rate  text-book  and  guide." 

SAILS   AND    SAIL=MAKING. 

With  Draughting,  and  the  Centre  of  Effort  of  the  Sails.  Weights  and 
Sizes  of  Ropes;  Masting,  Rigging,  and  Sails  of  Steam  Vessels,  &c.  By 
R.  KIPPING,  N.A.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

MASTING,   MAST-MAKING,   AND   RIGGING   OF  SHIPS. 

Also  Tables  of  Spars,  Rigging,  Blocks;  Chain,  Wire,  and  Hemp  Ropes, 
&c.,  relative  to  every  class  of  vessels.  By  R.  KIPPING.  12mo,  cloth, 

.80 
SEA   TERMS,    PHRASES,    AND   WORDS 

(Technical  Dictionary  of)  used  in  the  English  and  French  Languages 
(English-French,  French-English).  For  the  Use  of  Seamen,  Engineers, 
Pilots,  Shipbuilders,  Shipowners,  and  Ship-brokers.  Compiled  by  W. 
PIRRIE,  late  of  the  African  Steamship  Company.  Fcap,  8vo,  cloth 

limp $2.00 

This  volume  will  be  highly  appreciated  by  seamen,  engineers,  pilots,  ship- 
builders and  shipowners.  It  will  be  found  wonderfully  accurate  and  com- 
plete. 

SAILOR'S   SEA    BOOK: 

A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Navigation.  By  JAMES  GREENWOOD,  B.A. 
With  numerous  Woodcuts  and  Coloured  Plates.  New  and  Enlarged 

Edition.     By  W.  H.  ROSSER.     12mo,  cloth $1.00 

Is  perhaps  the  best  and  simplest  epitome  of  navigation  ever  compiled. 

PRACTICAL    NAVIGATION. 

Consisting  of  the  Sailor's  Sea  Book,  by  J.  GREENWOOD  and  W.  H.  ROSSER; 
together  with  Mathematical  and  Nautical  Tables  for  the  Working  of  the 
Problems,  by  H.  LAW,  C.E.,  and  Prof.  J.  R.  YOUNG $2.80 


22        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &•>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
NAVIGATION    AND    NAUTICAL   ASTRONOMY, 

In  Theory  and  Practice.     By  Prof.  J.  R.  YOUNG.     12mo,  cloth.$l.()0 
"A  very  complete,  thorough,  and  useful  manual  for  the  young  navigator." 

MATHEMATICAL   TABLES, 

For  Trigonometrical,  Astronomical,  and  Nautical  Calculations;  to 
which  is  prefixed  a  Treatise  on  Logarithms,  by  H.  LAW,  C.E.  With 
Tables  for  Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy.  By  Prof.  J.  R.  YOUNG. 
12mo,  cloth $1.60 


MINING,   METALLURGY,  AND 
COLLIERY  WORKING. 


THE    OIL    FIELDS    OF    RUSSIA    AND    THE    RUSSIAN 

PETROLEUM   INDUSTRY. 

A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Exploration,  Exploitation,  and  Manage- 
ment of  Russian  Oil  Properties,  including  Notes  on  the  Origin  of  Petro- 
leum in  Russia,  a  Description  of  the  Tneory  .and  Practice  of  Liquid 
Fuel,  and  a  Translation  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  concerning  Rus- 
sian Oil  Properties.  By  A.  BEEBY  THOMPSON,  A.M.I.M.E.,  late  Chief 
Engineer  and" Manager  of  the  European  Petroleum  Company's  Russian 
Oil  Properties.  About  500  pp.  With  numerous  Illustrations  and 
Photographic  Plates,  and  a  Map  of  the  Balakhany-Saboontchy-Romany 
Oil  Field.  Royal  8vo,  cloth Net  $  7  .59 

MECHANICS   OF   AIR   MACHINERY. 

By  Dr.  J.  WEISBACH  and  Prof.  G.  HERRMANN.  Authorized  Translation 
with  an  Appendix  on  American  Practice  by  A.  TROWBRIDGE,  Ph.B., 
Adjunct  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  Columbia  University. 

Royal  8vo,  cloth [Just  Published.     Net  $3.75 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS: — THE  MOVEMENT  OP  AIR. — NATURAL  AND  ARTI- 
FICIAL, VENTILATION. — BLOWING-ENGINES; — VACUUM  PUMPS;  TUYERES; 
HOT-AIR  BLAST;  WORK  PERFORMED  BY  BLOWERS;  BLAST-RESERVOIRS; 
PISTON-BLOWERS. — COMPRESSORS. — ROTARY  BLOWERS. — FANS. —  RECENT 
AMERICAN  PRACTICE,  &c. 

MACHINERY    FOR   METALLIFEROUS   MINES. 

A  Practical  Treatise  for  Mining  Engineers,  Metallurgists,  and  Managers 
of  Mines.  By  E.  HENRY  DAVIES,  M.E.,  F.G.S.  600  pp.  With  Fold- 
ing Plates  and  other  Illustrations.  Medium  8vo,  cloth $8.00 

"Deals  exhaustively  with  the  many  and  complex  details  which  go  to 
make  up  the  sum  total  of  machinery  and  other  requirements  for  the  success- 
ful working  of  metalliferous  mines,  and  as  a  book  of  ready  reference  is  of 
the  highest  value  to  mine  managers  and  directors." — Mining  Journal. 

THE    DEEP   LEVEL   MINES   OF   THE    RAND, 

And  their  Future  Development,  considered  from  the  Commercial  Point 
of  View.  By  G.  A.  DENNY  (of  Johannesburg),  M.N.E.I.M.E.,  Con- 
sulting Engineer  to  the  General  Mining  and  Finance  Corporation,  Ltd., 
of  London,  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Johannesburg.  Fully  Illustrated  with 

Diagrams  and  Folding  Plates.     Royal  8vo,  buckram 310.00 

"Mr.  Denny  by  confining  himself  to  the  consideration  of  the  future  of  the 
deep-level  mines  of  the  Rand  breaks  new  ground,  and  by  dealing  with  the 
subject  rather  from  a  commercial  standpoint  than  from  a  scientific  one, 
appeals  to  a  wide  circle  of  readers.  The  book  cannot  fail  to  prove  of  very 
great  value  to  investors  in  South  African  mines." — Mining  Journal. 


MINING,  METALLURGY,  &>  COLLIERY  WORKING.  23 
PROSPECTING  FOR  GOLD. 

A  Handbook  of  Practical  Information  and  Hints  for  Prospectors  based 
on  Personal  Experience.  By  DANIEL,  J.  RANKIN,  F.R.S.G.S.,  M.R.A.S., 
formerly  Manager  of  the  Central  African  Company,  and  Leader  of 
African  Gold  Prospecting  Expeditions.  With  Illustrations  specially 

Drawn  and  Engraved  for  the  Work.     Fcap.  8vo,  leather «a»3.OJ 

"  This  well-compiled  book  contains  a  collection  of  the  richest  gems  of  usa- 
fal  knowledge  for  the  prospector's  benefit.  A  special  table  is  given  to 
accelerate  the  spotting  at  a  glance  of  minerals  associated  with  gold." — Min- 
.710  Journal. 

TrIE    METALLURGY    OF   GOLD. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgical  Treatment  of  Gold-bearing 
Ores.     Including  the  Assaying,  Melting,  and  Refining  of  Gold.     By  M. 
EiS9LER,  M.Iiist.M.M.     Fifth  Edition,  Enlarged.     With  over  300  Illus- 
trations and  numerous  Folding  Plates.     Medium  8vo,  cloth.  .  .Jj»7.50 
"This  book  thoroughly  deserves  its  title  of  a  'Practical  Treatise.'     The 
whole  process  of  gold  mining,  from  the  breaking  of  the  quartz  to  the  assay 
of  the  bullion,  is  described  in  clear  and  orderly  narrative  and  with  much 
fulness  of  detail." 

THE   CYANIDE    PROCESS   OF    GOLD    EXTRACTION, 

And  its  Practical  Application  on  the  Witwatersrand  Gold  Fields  and 
elsewhere.  By  M.  EISSLER,  M.Inst.M.M.  With  Diagrams  and  Work- 
ing Drawings,  Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  8vo,  cloth, 

$3.00 

"This  book  is  just  what  was  needed  to  acquaint  mining  men  with  the 
actual  working  of  a  process  which  is  not  only  the  most  popular,  but  is,  as 
a  general  rule,  the  most  successful  for  the  extraction  of  gold  from  tailings." 
— Mining  Journal. 

DIAMOND  DRILLING  FOR  GOLD  &  OTHER  MINERALS. 

A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Use  of  Modern  Diamond  Core  Drills  in 
Prospecting  and  Exploiting  Mineral-Bearing  Properties,  including  Par- 
ticulars of  the  Costs  of  Anparatus  and  Working.  By  G.  A.  DENNY, 
M.N.E.Inst.M.E.,  M.Inst.M.M.  Medium  8vo,  168  pp.,  with  Illustra- 
tive Diagrams 85.00 

"There  is  certainly  scopo  for  a  work  on  diamond  drilling,  and  Mr.  Denny 

deserves   grateful   recognition   for   supplying   a   decided   want." — Mining 

Journal. 


GOLD    ASSAYING. 

A  Practical  Handbook,  giving  the  Modus  Operand*  for  the  Accurate 
Assay  of  Auriferous  Ores  and  Bullion,  and  the  Chemical  Tests  required 
in  the  Processes  of  Extraction  by  Amalgamation,  Cyanidation,  and 
Chlorination.  With  an  Appendix  of  Tables  and  Statistics.  By  H. 
JOSHUA  PHILLIPS,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.,  Assoc  Inst.C.E.,  Author  of  "Engineer- 
ing Chemistry,"  &c.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth .  $3.00 

FIELD   TESTING    FOR   GOLD    AND    SILVER. 

A  Practical  Manual  for  Prospectors  and  Miners.  By  W.  H.  MERRITT, 
M.N.E.Inst.M.E.,  A.R.S.M.,  &c.  With  Photographic  Plates  and  other 

Illustrations.     Fcap.  8vo,  leather St. 50 

'As  an  instructor  of  prospectors'  classes  Mr.  Merritt  has  the  advantage  of 
knowing  exactly  the  information  likely  to  be  most  valuable  to  the  miner 
in  the  field.  The  contents  cover  all  the  details  for  sampling  and  testing 
gold  and  silver  ores.  A  useful  addition  to  a  prospector's  kit." — Mining 
Journal. 


24        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  6-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
THE    PROSPECTOR'S   HANDBOOK. 

A  Guide  for  the  Prospector  and  Traveller  in  search  of  Metal-Bearing  or 
other  Valuable  Minerals.  By  J.  W.  ANDERSON,  M.A.(Camb.),  F.R.G.S. 

Tenth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth J51.50 

"How  to  find  commercial  minerals,  and  how  to  identify  them  when  they 

are  found,  are  the  leading  points  to  which  attention  is  directed." — Mining 

Journal. 

THE    METALLURGY   OF    SILVER. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Amalgamation,  Roasting,  and  Lixiviation 
of  Silver  Ores.  Including  the  Assaying,  Melting,  and  Refining  of  Silver 
Bullion.  By  M.  EISSLER,  M.Inst.M.M.  Fifth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth. 

$4.00 

"A  practical  treatise  and  a  technical  work  which  we  are  convinced  will 
supply  a  long-felt  want  amongst  practical  men,  and  at  the  same  time  be  of 
value  to  students  and  others  indirectly  connected  with  the  industries." — 
Mining  Journal. 

THE    HYDRO=METALLURGY   OF   COPPER. 

Being  an  Account  of  Processes  Adopted  in  the  Hydro-Metallurgical 
Treatment  of  Cupriferous  Ores,  Including  the  Manufacture  of  Copper 
Vitriol,  with  Chapters  on  the  Sources  of  Supply  of  Copper  and  the 
Roasting  of  Copper  Ores.  By  M.  EISSLER,  M.Inst.M.M.  8vo,  cloth 

$4.50 

"In  this  volume  the  various  processes  for  the  extraction  of  copper  by  wet 
methods  are  fully  detailed.  Costs  are  given  when  available,  and  a  great 
deal  of  useful  information  about  the  copper  industry  of  the  world  is  pre- 
sented in  an  interesting  and  attractive  manner." — Mining  Journal. 

THE    METALLURGY   OF   ARGENTIFEROUS    LEAD. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Smelting  of  Silver-Lead  Ores  and  the  Refin- 
ing of  Lead  Bullion.  Including  Reports  on  various  Smelting  Estab- 
lishments and  Descriptions  of  Modern  Smelting  Furnaces  and  Plants 
in  Europe  and  America.  By  M.  EISSLEU,  M.Inst.M.M.  12mo,  cloth 

$5.00 

"The  numerous  metallurgical  processes,  which  are  fully  and  extensively 
treated  of,  embrace  all  the  stages  experienced  in  the  passage  of  the  lead 
from  the  various  natural  states  to  its  issue  from  the  refinery  as  an  article 
of  commerce." — Practical  Engineer. 

METALLIFEROUS   MINERALS   AND    MINING. 

By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.G.S.  Sixth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised  and  much 
Enlarged  by  his  Son,  E.  HENRY  DAVIES,  M.E.,  F.G.S.  600  pp.,  with 

173  Illustrations.     8vo,  cloth Net  $5.00 

"Neither  the  practical  miner  nor  the  general  reader,  interested  in  mines, 
can  have  a  better  book  for  his  companion  and  his  guide." — Mining  Journal. 

EARTHY    AND    OTHER    MINERALS    AND    MINING. 

Bv  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.G.S.,  Author  of  "Metalliferous  Minerals,"  &c. 
Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged  by  his  Son,  E.  HENRY  DAVIES, 
M.E.,  F.G.S.  With  about  100  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $5.00 

BRITISH    MINING. 

A  Treatise  on  the  History,  Discovery,  Practical  Development,  and 
Future  Prospects  of  Metalliferous  Mines  in  the  United  Kingdom.  By 
ROBERT  HUNT,  F.R.S.,  late  Keeper  of  Mining  Records.  Upwards  of 
950  pp.,  with  230  Illustrations.  Second  Edition,  Revised.  Super-royal 
8vo,  cloth $15.00 

POCKET=BOOK  FOR  MINERS  AND  METALLURGISTS. 

Comprising  Rules,  Formulae,  Tables,  and  Notes  for  Use  in  Field  and 
Office  Work.  By  F.  DANVERS  POWER,  F.G.S.,  M.E.  Second  Edition, 
Corrected.  Fcap.  8vo,  leather $3.50 


MINING,  METALLURGY,  &  COLLIERY  WORKING.  25 
THE  MINER'S  HANDBOOK. 

A  Handy  Book  of  Reference  on  the  subjects  of  Mineral  Deposits,  Mining 
Operations,  Ore  Dressing,  &c.  For  the  Use  of  Students  and  others  in- 
terested in  Mining  Matters.  Compiled  by  JOHN  MILNE,  F.R.S.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Mining  in  the  Imperial  University  of  Japan.  Third  Edition. 
Fcap.  8vo,  leather $3.0O 

IRON    ORES   of   GREAT   BRITAIN    and    IRELAND. 

Their  Mode  of  Occurrence,  Age  and  Origin,  and  the  Methods  of  Searching 
for  and  Working  Them.  With  a  Notice  of  some  of  the  Iron  Ores  of 
Spain.  By  J.  D.  KENDALL,  F.G.S.,  Mining  Engineer.  12mo,  cloth 

$6.00 
METALLURGY    OF    IRON. 

Containing  History  of  Iron  Manufacture,  Methods  of  Assay,  and  Analy- 
ses of  Iron  Ores,  Processes  of  Manufacture  of  Iron  "and  Steel,  &c.  By 
H.  BAUERMAN,  F.G.S.,  A.R.S.M.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Sixth 

Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  12mo,  cloth S3. 00 

"Carefully  written,  it  has  the  merit  of  brevity  and  conciseness,  as  to  less 

important  points;  while  all  material  matters  are  very  fully  and  thoroughly 

entered  into." — Standard. 

MINE    DRAINAGE. 

A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Direct-Acting  Underground  Steam 
Pumping  Machinery.  By  STEPHEN  MICHELL.  Second  Edition,  Re- 
written and  Enlarged.  With  250  Illustrations.  Royal  8vo,  cloth. 

$10.00 

HORIZONTAL  PUMPING  ENGINES.— ROTARY  AND  NON-ROTARY 
HORIZONTAL  ENGINES. — SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  STEAM  PUMPS. — VERTI- 
CAL PUMPING  ENGINES.— ROTARY  AND  NON-ROTARY  VERTICAL 
ENGINES. — SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  STEAM  PUMPS. — TRIPLE-EXPANSION 
STEAM  PUMPS. — PULSATING  STEAM  PUMPS. — PUMP  VALVES. — SINKING 
PUMPS,  &c.,  &c. 

ELECTRICITY    AS    APPLIED   TO    MINING. 

By  ARNOLD  LUPTON,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.,  M.I.E.E.,  late  Professor  of 
Coal  Mining  at  the  Yorkshire  College,  Victoria  University,  Mining  En- 
gineer and  Colliery  Manager;  G.  D.  ASPINALL  PARR,  M.I.E.E.,  A.M.I. 
M.E.,  Associate  of  the  Central  Technical  College,  City  and  Guilds  of 
London,  Head  of  the  Electrical  Engineering  Department,  Yorkshire 
College,  Victoria  University;  and  HERBERT  PERKIN,  M.I.M.E.,  Certifi- 
cated Colliery  Manager,  Assistant  Lecturer  in  the  Mining  Department  of 
the  Yorkshire  College,  Victoria  University.  With  about  170  Illustra- 
tions. Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Medium  8vo,  cloth. 

[Just  Published.}      $4.50 
(For  SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS,  see  page  28.) 

THE   COLLIERY    MANAGER'S   HANDBOOK. 

A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  the  Laying-out  and  Working  of  Collieries, 
Designed  as  a  Book  of  Reference  for  Colliery  Managers,  and  for  the 
Use  of  Coal-Mining  Students  preparing  for  First-class  Certificates.     By 
CALEB  PAMELY,  Mining  Engineer  and  Surveyor;   Member  of  the  North 
of  England  Institute  of  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engineers;  and  Member 
of  the  South  Wales  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers.     With  over  1,000 
Diagrams,   Plans,   and   other  Illustrations.     Fifth    Edition,   Carefully 
Revised  and  Greatly  Enlarged.    1,200  pp.    Medium  8vo,  cloth. $10.00 
GEOLOGY. — SEARCH  FOR  COAL. — MINERAL  LEASES  AND  OTHER  HOLDINGS. — 
SHAFT  SINKING. — FITTING  UP  THE  SHAFT  AND  SURFACE  ARRANGEMENTS. — 
STKAM  BOILERS  AND  THEIR  FITTINGS. — TIMBERING  AND  WALLING. — NARROW 
WORK  AND  METHODS  OF  WORKING. — UNDERGROUND  CONVEYANCE. — DRAIN- 
AGE.— THE  GASES  MET  WITH  IN  MINES;  VENTILATION. — ON  THE  FRICTION  OP 
AIR  IN  MINES. — THE  PRIESTMAN  OIL  ENGINE;   PETROLEUM  AND  NATURAL 
GAS. — SURVEYING  AND  PLANNING. — SAFETY  LAMPS  AND  FIREDAMP  DETECT- 
ORS.— SUNDRY  AND  INCIDENTAL  OPERATIONS  AND  APPLIANCES. — COLLIERY 
EXPLOSIONS.  —  MISCELLANEOUS   QUESTIONS    AND    ANSWERS.  —  A  vpendix: 
SUMMARY  OF  REPORT  OF  H.M.  COMMISSIONERS  ON  ACCIDENTS  IN  MINES. 


26        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
PRACTICAL   COAL=MINING. 

An  Elementary  Class-Book  for  the  Use  of  Students  attending  Classes  in 
Preparation  for  the  Board  of  Education  and  County  Council  Examina- 
tions, or  Qualifying  for  First  or  Second  Class  Colliery  Managers'  Cer- 
tificates. By.  T.  H.  COCKIN,  Member  ot  the  Institution  of  Mining 
Engineers,  Certificated  Colliery  Manager,  Lecturer  on  Coal-Mining  at 
Sheffield  University  College.  With  Map  of  the  British  Coal-fields  and 
over  200  Illustrations  specially  Drawn  and  Engraved  for  the  Work. 
440  pp.,  12mo,  cloth .$2.50 

COLLIERY    WORKING    AND    MANAGEMENT. 

Comprising  the  Duties  of  a  Colliery  Manager,  the  Oversight  and  Arrange- 
ment of  Labour  and  Wages,  and  the  different  Systems  of  Working  Coal 
Seams.  By  H.  F.  BULMAN  and  R.  A.  S,  REDMAYNE.  350  pp.,  with 
28  Plates  and  other  Illustrations,  including  Underground  Photographs. 
Medium  8vo,  cloth Net  {$6.00 

NOTES   AND   FORMUL/E   FOR   MINING   STUDENTS. 

By  JOHN  HERMAN  MERIVALE,  M.A.,  Late  Professor  of  Mining  in  the 
Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  Fourth  Edition, 
Revised  and  Enlarged.  By  H.  F.  BULMAN,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  12mo, 

doth $1.00 

"The  author  has  done  his  work  in  a  creditable  manner,  and  has  produced 

a  book  that  will  be  of  service  to  students  and  those  who  are  practically 

engaged  in  mining  operations." — Engineer. 

PHYSICS   AND    CHEMISTRY   OF   MINING. 

An  Elementary  Class-Book  for  the  use  of  Students  preparing  for  the 
Board  of  Education  and  County  Council  Examinations  in  Mining,  or 
Qualifying  for  Colliery  Managers'  Certificates.  By  T.  H.  BYROM, 
Chemist  to  the  Wigan  Coal  and  Iron  Co.,  Ltd.,  &c.  With  Illustrations. 
12mo,  cloth [Just  Published.]  $1.50 

MINING    CALCULATIONS. 

For  the  use  of  Students  Preparing  for  the  Examinations  for  Colliery 
Managers'  Certificates,  comprising  Numerous  Rules  and  Examples  in 
Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and  Mensuration.  By  T.  A.  O'DONAHUE,  M.E., 
First-class  Certificated  Colliery  Manager.  12mo,  cloth $1.50 

COAL   AND   COAL   MINING. 

By  the  late  Sir  WARINGTON  W.  SMYTH,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  Eighth  Edition, 
Revised  and  Extended  by  T.  FORSTER  BROWN,  Chief  Inspector  of  the 
Mines  of  the  Crown  and  of  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall.  12mo,  cloth.  $1.40 

INFLAMMABLE   GAS   AND    VAPOUR    IN   THE    AIR 

(The  Detection  and  Measurement  of).  By  FRANK  CLOWES,  D.Sc., 
Lond.,  F.I.C.  With  a  Chapter  on  THE  DETECTION  AND  MEASUREMENT 
OP  PETROLEUM  VAPOUR,  by  BOVERTON  REDWOOD,  F.R.S.E.  12mo, 

cloth ..-.$2.50 

' '  Professor  Clowes  has  given  us  a  volume  on  a  subject  of  much  industrial 
importance.  .  .  Those  interested  in  these  matters  may  be  recommended 
to  study  this  book,  which  is  easy  of  comprehension  and  contains  many  good 
things." — The  Engineer. 

COAL  &  IRON  INDUSTRIES  of  the  UNITED  KINGDOM. 

Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Coal  Fields  and  of  the  Principal  Seams 
of  Coal,  with  Returns  of  their  Produce  and  its  Distribution,  and  Analyses 
of  Special  Varieties.  Also,  an  Account  of  the  Occurrence  of  Iron  Ore 
in  Veins  or  Seams;  Analyses  of  each  Variety;  and  a  History  of  the 
Rise  and  Progress  of  Pig  Iron  Manufacture.  By  RICHARD  MEADE.  8vo, 
cloth $10.00 


MINING,  METALLURGY,  6-  COLLIERY  WORKING.  27 
MINING    TOOLS, 

Manual  of.     By  W.  MORGANS,  Lecturer  on  Mining  at  the  Bristol  School 

of  Mines.     12mo,  cloth SI  .00 

Atlas  of  Engravings  to  the  above,  containing  235  Illustrations  drawn 
to  Scale.  4to $1.80 

SLATE    AND    SLATE    QUARRYING. 

Scientific,  Practical,  and  Commercial.  By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.G.S.,  Min- 
ing Engineer,  &c.  With  numerous  Illustrations  and  Folding  Plates 
Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth SI. 20 

A    FIRST    BOOK    OF    MINING    AND    QUARRYING. 

By  J.  H.  COLLINS,  F.G.S.     Crown  8vo,  cloth .60 

ASBESTOS   AND    ASBESTIC. 

Their  Properties,  Occurrence,  and  Use.  By  ROBERT  H.  JONES,  F.S.A. 
Mineralogist,  Hon.  Mem.  Asbestos  Club,  Black  Lake,  Canada.  With 
Ten  Collotype  Plates  and  other  Illustrations.  Demy  8vo,  cloth.  $6.40 

GRANITES    AND    OUR    GRANITE    INDUSTRIES. 

By  GEORGE  F.  HARRIS,  F.G.S.    With  Illustrations.    12mo,  cloth.  $1.00 

MINERAL   SURVEYOR   AND   VALUER'S   GUIDE. 

Comprising  a  Treatise  on  Improved  Mining  Surveying  and  the  Valuation 
of  Mining  Properties,  with  New  Traverse  Tables.  By  W.  LINTERN,  C.E. 

Fourth  Edition,  enlarged.     12mo,  cloth $1.40 

"Contains  much  valuable  information,  and  is  thoroughly  trustworthy." — 
Iron  and  Coal  Trades  Review. 

TRAVERSE   TABLES. 

For  use  in  Mine  Surveying.  By  WILLIAM  LINTERN,  C.E.  With  two 
plates.  Small  crown  8 vo,  cloth Net  $1.50 

SUBTERRANEOUS   SURVEYING. 

By  T.  FENWICK.  Also  the  Method  of  Conducting  Subterraneous  Sur- 
veys without  the  use  of  the  Magnetic  Needle,  &c.  By  T.  BAKER.  12mo, 

$1,00 
MINERALOGY, 

Rudiments  of.  By  A.  RAMSAY,  F.G.S.  Fourth  Edition.  Woodcuts 
and  Plates.  12mo,  cloth $1.40 

PHYSICAL   GEOLOGY, 

Partly  based  on  Major-General  PORTLOCK'S  "Rudiments  of  Geology." 
By  RALPH  TATE,  A.L.S.,  &c.  Woodcuts.  12mo,  cloth .80 

HISTORICAL   GEOLOGY, 

Partly  based  on  Major-General  PORTLOCK'S  "Rudiments."  By  RALPH 
TATE.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

GEOLOGY, 

PHYSICAL  and  HISTORICAL.  Consisting  of  "Physical  Geology,"  which 
sees  forth  the  Leading  Principles  of  the  Science;  and  "Historical  Geol- 
ogy," which  treats  of  the  Mineral  and  Organic  Conditions  of  the  Earth 
at  each  successive  epoch.  By  R.  TATE.  12mo,  cloth $1.80 


28        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &•  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 


ELECTRICITY,  ELECTRICAL 
ENGINEERING,   ETC. 


THE    ELEMENTS   OF    ELECTRICAL   ENGINEERING. 

A  First  Year's  Course  for  Students.  By  TYSON  SEWELL,  A.I.E.E., 
Assistant  Lecturer  and  Demonstrator  in  Electrical  Engineering  at  the 
Polytechnic,  Regent  Street,  London.  Third  Edition,  Revised  and  En- 
larged, including  an  Appendix  of  Questions  and  Answers.  460  pages, 

with  274  Illustrations.     Demy  8vo,  cloth [Just  Published.]     $3.00 

OHM'S  LAW. — UNITS  EMPLOYED  IN  ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING. — SERIES, 
AND  PARALLEL  CIRCUITS;  CURRENT  DENSITY  AND  POTENTIAL  DROP  IN  THE.  . 
CIRCUIT. — THE  HEATING  EFFECT  OF  THE  ELECTRIC  CURRENT. — THE  MAG- 
NETIC EFFECT  OF  AN  ELECTRIC  CURRENT. — THE  MAGNETISATION  OF  IRON. — 
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY;  PRIMARY  BATTERIES. — ACCUMULATORS.— INDICAT- 
ING INSTRUMENTS;  AMMETERS,  VOLTMETERS,  OHMMETERS. — ELECTRICITY 
SUPPLY  METERS. — MEASURING  INSTRUMENTS,  AND  THE  MEASUREMENT  OF 
ELECTRICAL  RESISTANCE, — MEASUREMENT  OF  POTENTIAL  DIFFERENCE 
CAPACITY  CURRENT  STRENGTH,  AND  PERMEABILITY. — ARC  LAMPS. — INCAN- 
DESCENT LAMPS,  MANUFACTURE  AND  INSTALLATION;  PHOTOMETRY. — THE 
CONTINUOUS  CURRENT  DYNAMO. — DIRECT  CURRENT  MOTORS. — ALTERNATING 
CURRENTS. — TRANSFORMERS,  ALTERNATORS,  SYNCHRONOUS  MOTORS. — POLY- 
PHASE WORKING. — APPENDIX  OF  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS. 

ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICAL    ENGINEERING 

In  Theory  and  Practice.  A  Class-book  for  Junior  and  Senior  Students 
and  Working  Electricians.  By  J.  H.  ALEXANDER,  M.B.,  A.I.E.E 
With  181  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth [Just  Published.  $1.50 

THE    ELECTRICAL   TRANSMISSION    OF    ENERGY. 

A  Manual  for  the  Design  of  Electrical  Circuits.  By  ARTHUR  VAUGHAN 
ABBOTT,  C.E.,  Member  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers, 
Member  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  Member  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  Member  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers,  &c.  With  Ten  Folding  Diagrams  and  Sixteen  Full-page 
Engravings.  Fourth  Edition,  entirely  Re-Written  and  Enlarged. 
Royal  8vo,  cloth Net  $5.00 

ELECTRICITY   AS   APPLIED   TO   MINING. 

By  ARNOLD  LUPTON,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.,  M.I.E.E.,  late  Professor  of 
Coal  Mining  at  the  Yorkshire  College,  Victoria  University,  Mining  En- 
gineer and  Colliery  Manager;  G.  D.  ASPINALL  PARR,  M.I.E.E.,  A.M.I. 
M.E.,  Associate  of  the  Central  Technical  College,  City  and  Guilds  of 
London,  Head  of  the  Electrical  Engineering  Department,  Yorkshire 
College,  Victoria  University;  and  HERBERT  PERKIN,  M.I.M.E.,  Cer- 
tificated Colliery  Manager,  Assistant  Lecturer  in  the  Mining  Depart- 
ment of  the  Yorkshire  College,  Victoria  University.  With  about  170 
Illustrations.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Medium  8vo, 

cloth [Just  Published.     $4.50 

INTRODUCTORY. — DYNAMIC  ELECTRICITY. — DRIVING  OF  THE  DYNAMO. — 
THE  STEAM  TURBINE. — DISTRIBUTION  OF  ELECTRICAL  ENERGY. — STARTING 
AND  STOPPING  ELECTRICAL  GENERATORS  AND  MOTORS. — ELECTRIC  CABLES. — 
CENTRAL  ELECTRICAL  PLANTS. — ELECTRICITY  APPLIED  TO  PUMPTNG  AND 
HAULING. — ELECTRICITY  APPLIED  TO  COAL-CUTTING. — TYPICAL  ELECTRIC 
PLANTS  RECENTLY  ERECTED. — ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  BY  ARC  AND  GLOW 
LAMPS. — MISCELLANEOUS  APPLICATIONS  OF  ELECTRICITY. — ELECTRICITY  AS 
COMPARED  WITH  OTHER  MODES  OF  TRANSMITTING  POWER. — DANGERS  OF 
ELECTRICITY. 


ELECTRICITY,  ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING,  &c.  29 
CONDUCTORS    FOR    ELECTRICAL    DISTRIBUTION. 

Their  Materials  and  Manufacture,  The  Calculation  of  Circuits,  Pole-Line 
Construction,  Underground  Working,  and  other  Uses.  By  F.  A.  C. 
PERRINE,  A.M.,  D.Se.;  formerly  Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering, 
Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University;  M.Amer.I.E.E.  8vo,  cloth. 

Net  $3.50 

CONDUCTOR  MATERIALS. — ALLOYED  CONDUCTORS. — MANUFACTURE  OF 
WIRE. — WIRE-FINISHING. — WIRE  INSULATION — CABLES. — CALCULATION  OF 
CIRCUITS. — KELVIN'S  LAW  OF  ECONOMY  IN  CONDUCTORS. — MULTIPLE  ARC 
DISTRIBUTION. — ALTERNATING  CURRENT  CALCULATION. — OVERHEAD  LINES. 
— POLE  LINE. — LINE  INSULATORS. — UNDERGROUND  CONDUCTORS. 

DYNAMO    ELECTRIC    MACHINERY:     its    CONSTRUC- 
TION,  DESIGN,   and  OPERATION. 

By  SAMUEL  SHELDON,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Physics  and  Electrical 
Engineering  at  the  Polytechnic  Institute  of  Brooklyn,  assisted  by  H. 
MASON.  B.S. 

In  two  volumes,  sold  separately,  as  follows: — 
Vol.  I.— DIRECT    CURRENT    MACHINES.     Fifth  Edition,  Revised. 

8vo.     280  pages,  with  200  Illustrations -^$2.50 

Vol.  II— ALTERNATING  CURRENT  MACHINES.     8vo.     260  pages, 

with  184  Illustrations Net  $2.50 

Designed  as  Text-books  for  use  in  Technical  Educational  Institutions,  and 
by  Engineers  whose  work  includes  the  handling  of  Direct  and  Alternating 
Current  Machines  respectively,  and  for  Students  proficient  in  mathematics. 

DYNAMO,    MOTOR    AND    SWITCHBOARD    CIRCUITS 

FOR   ELECTRICAL   ENGINEERS. 

A  Practical  Book  dealing  with  the  subject  of  Direct,  Alternating  and 
Polyphase  Currents.  By  WILLIAM  R.  BOWKER,  C.E.,  M.E.,  E.E.,  Con- 
sulting Tramway  Engineer.  8vo,  cloth $2.25 

"Mr.  Bowker's  book  consists  chiefly  of  diagrams  of  connections,  with  short 
explanatory  notes,  there  are  over  100  diagrams,  and  the  cases  considered 
cover  all  the  more  important  circuits,  whether  in  direct  current,  single- 
phase,  or  polyphase  work." — Nature. 

ARMATURE      WINDINGS      OF      DIRECT      CURRENT 

DYNAMOS. 

Extension  and  Application  of  a  General  Winding  Rule.  By  E.  ARNOLD, 
Translated  from  the  German  by  F.  B.  DE  GREES.  8vo,  cloth.  $2.00 

POWER  TRANSMITTED  BY  ELECTRICITY, 

And  applied  by  the  Electric  Motor,  including  Electric  Railway  Con- 
struction. By  P.  ATKINSON,  A.M.,  Ph.D.  Third  Edition,  Fully  Re- 
vised, and  New  Matter  added.  With  94  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth. 

$2.00 
DYNAMO    CONSTRUCTION. 

A  Practical  Handbook  for  the  Use  of  Engineer-Constructors  and  Elec- 
tricians-in-Charge.  Embracing  Framework  Building,  Field  Magnet  and 
Armature  Winding  and  Grouping,  Compounding,  &c.  By  J.  W.  URQU- 
HART.  Second  Edition,  Enlarged,  with  114  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth. 

$3.00 
HOW    TO    MAKE    A    DYNAMO. 

A  Practical  Treatise  for  Amateurs.  Containing  Illustrations  and  De- 
tailed Instructions  for  Constructing  a  Small  Dynamo  to  Produce  the 
Electric  Light.  By  ALFRED  CROFTS.  Seventh  Edition.  12mo,  cloth. 

.80 
WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY; 

Its  Origins,  Development,  Inventions,  and  Apparatus.  By  CHARLES 
HENRY  SEWALL.  With  85  Diagrams  and  Illustrations.  8vo,  cloth. 

Net  $2.00 


36        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &•>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
SUBMARINE   TELEGRAPHS; 

Their  History,  Construction,  and  Working.  Founded  in  part  on  WUN- 
8CHENDORFFys  "Traite"  de  Telegraphic  Sous-Marine,"  and  Compiled  from 
Authoritative  and  Exclusive  Sources.  By  CHARLES  BRIGHT,  F.R.S.E. 
A.M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.E.E.  780  pp.,  fully  Illustrated,  including  Maps  and 
Folding  Plates.  Royal  8vo,  cloth $£5.00 

ELECTRICAL   AND   MAGNETIC   CALCULATIONS. 

For  the  Use  of  Electrical  Engineers  and  Artisans,  Teachers,  Students, 
and  all  others  interested  in  the  Theory  and  Application  of  Electricity 
and  Magnetism.  By  Prof.  A.  A.  ATKINSON,  Ohio  University.  12mo, 
doth $1.50 

"To  teachers  and  those  who  already  possess  a  fair  knowledge  of  their  sub- 
ject we  can  recommend  this  book  as  being  useful  to  consult  when  requiring 
data  or  formulae  which  it  is  neither  convenient  nor  necessary  to  retain  by 
memory." — The  Electrician. 

THE    ELECTRICAL   ENGINEER'S   POCKET=BOOK. 

Consisting  of  Rules,  Formulae,  Tables,  and  Data.  By  H.  R.  KEMFE, 
M.I.E.E.,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Technical  Officer  Postal  Telegraphs,  Author 
of  "A  Handbook  of  Electrical  Testing."  Second  Edition.  32mo, 
leather $1.75 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  (ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES  OF). 

By  ALAN  A.  CAMPBELL  SWINTON,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.E.E.  Sixth  Edition. 
With  16  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth .60 

ELECTRIC    LIGHT. 

Its  Production  and  Use,  Embodying  Plain  Directions  for  the  Treatment 
of  Dynamo-Electric  Machines,  Batteries,  Accumulators,  and  Electric 
Lamps.  By  J.  W.  URQUHART,  C.E.  Seventh  Edition.  12mo,  cloth. 

$3.00 

ELECTRIC    LIGHT   FOR   COUNTRY    HOUSES. 

A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Erection  and  Running  of  Small  Installa- 
tions, with  Particulars  of  the  Cost  of  Plant  and  Working.  By  J.  H. 
KNIGHT.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised.  12mo,  boards .50 

ELECTRIC    LIGHT    FITTING. 

A  Handbook  for  Working  Electrical  Engineers,  embodying  Practical 
Notes  on  Installation  Management.  By  J.  W.  URQUHART.  With 
numerous  Illustrations.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised.  12mo,  cloth. $2.00 

ELECTRIC   SHIP=LIGHTING. 

A  Handbook  on  the  Practical  Fitting  and  Running  of  Ships'  Electrical 
Plant.  For  the  Use  of  Shipowners  and  Builders,  Marine  Electricians, 
and  Seagoing  Engineers-in-Charge.  By  J.  W.  URQUHART,  C.E.  Third 
Edition,  Revised  and  Extended.  With  88  Illustrations,  12mo, 
cloth $3.00 

DYNAMIC    ELECTRICITY    AND    MAGNETISM. 

By  PHILIP  ATKINSON,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Author  of  "Elements  of  Static 
Electricity,"  &c.  Crown,  8vo,  417  pp.,  with  120  Illustrations,  cloth 

$2.00 
THE    STUDENT'S   TEXT=BOOK   OF    ELECTRICITY. 

By  H.  M.  NOAD,  F.R.S.  650  pp.,  with  470  Illustrations.  12mo, 
cloth $4.00 


ARCHITECTURE,  BUILDING,  &c.  31 

ARCHITECTURE,   BUILDING,   ETC. 


SPECIFICATIONS    IN    DETAIL. 

By  FRANK  W.  MACEY,  Architect,  Author  of  "Conditions  of  Contract." 
Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged,  containing  644  pp.,  and  2,000 

Illustrations.     Royal  8vo,  cloth $8.00 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS: — GENERAL,  NOTES  (INCLUDING  POINTS  IN  SPECI- 
FICATION WRITING,  THE  ORDER  OF  A  SPECIFICATION,  AND  NOTES  ON  ITEMS 
OFTEN  OMITTED  FROM  A  SPECIFICATION). — FORM  OF  OUTSIDE  COVER  TO  A 
SPECIFICATION. — SPECIFICATION  OF  WORKS  AND  LIST  OF  GENERAL  CONDI- 
TIONS.— PRELIMINARY  ITEMS  (INCLUDING  SHORING  AND  HOUSE  BREAKER). 
— DRAINAGE  (INCLUDING  RAIN-WATER  WELLS  AND  REPORTS). — EXCAVATOR 
(INCLUDING  CONCRETE  FLOORS,  ROOFS,  STAIRS,  AND  WALLS). — PAVIOR. — 
BRICKLAYER  (INCLUDING  FLINTWORK,  RIVER,  AND  OTHER  WALLING,  SPRING- 
WATER  WELLS,  STORAGE  TANKS,  FOUNTAINS,  FILTERS,  TERRA  COTTA  AND 
FAIENCE). — MASON. — CARPENTER,  JOINER,  AND  IRONMONGER  (INCLUDING 
FENCING  AND  PILING). — SMITH  AND  FOUNDER  (INCLUDING  HEATING,  FIRE 
HYDRANTS,  STABLE  AND  COW-HOUSE  FITTINGS). — SLATER  (INCLUDING  SLATB 
MASON). — TILER. — STONE  TILER. — SHINGLER. — THATCHER. — PLUMBER  (IN- 
CLUDING HOT-WATER  WORK). — ZINCWORKER. — COPPERSMITH. — PLASTERER. 
—  GASFITTER.  —  BELLHANGER.  —  GLAZIER.  —  PAINTER. —  PAPERHANGER. — 
GENERAL  REPAIRS  AND  ALTERATIONS. — VENTILATION. — ROAD-MAKING. — 
ELECTRIC  LIGHT. — INDEX. 

PRACTICAL    BUILDING  CONSTRUCTION. 

A  Handbook  for  Students  Preparing  for  Examinations,  and  a  Book 
of  Reference  for  Persons  Engaged  in  Building.  By  JOHN  PARNELL 
ALLEN,  Surveyor,  Lecturer  on  Building  Construction  at  the  Durham 
College  of  Science,  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and 
Enlarged.  Medium  8vo,  570  pp.,  with  over  1,000  Illustrations,  cloth, 

$3.00 
SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    PRACTICAL   ARCHITECTURE. 

A  Guide  to  the  Architect,  Engineer,  Surveyor,  and  Builder.  Upon 
the  Basis  of  the  Work  by  A.  BARTHOLOMEW,  Revised,  by  F.  ROGERS. 
8vo,  cloth $6.00 

SCIENCE   OF   BUILDING: 

An  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Principles  of  Construction.  By  E. 
WYNDHAM  TARN,  M.A.Lond.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth. $1.40 

ART   OF   BUILDING, 

Rudiments  of.  General  Principles  of  Construction,  Character,  Strength, 
and  Use  of  Materials,  Preparation  of  Specifications  and  Estimates,  &e. 
By  EDWARD  DOBSON,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fifteenth  Edition,  revised  by  J.  P. 
ALLEN,  Lecturer  on  Building  Construction  at  the  Durham  College  of 
Science.  12mo,  cloth .80 

BOOK   ON    BUILDING, 

Civil  and  Ecclesiastical.  By  Sir  EDMUND  BECKETT,  Bart.,  LL.D. 
Second  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.80 

BUILDING    ESTATES: 

A  Treatise  on  the  Development,  Sale,  Purchase,  and  Management  of 
Building  Land.  By  F.  MAITLAND.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth, 

.80 

COTTAGE   BUILDING. 

By  C.  BRUCE  ALLEN.  Twelfth  Edition,  with  Chapter  on  Economic 
Cottages  for  Allotments  by  E.  E.  ALLEN,  C.E.  12mo,  cloth.  .  ,80 


32        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &-=  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
DWELLINQ=HOUSES, 

Erection  of,  illustrated  by  a  Perspective  View,  Plans,  Elevations,  and 
Sections  of  a  Pair  of  Villas,  with  the  Specification,  Quantities,  and 
Estimates.  By  S.  H.  BROOKS.  12mo,  cloth  ................  $j  QQ 

FARM    BUILDINGS: 

Their  Arrangement  and  Construction,  with  Plans  and  Estimates.  By 
Professor  J.  SCOTT.  12mo,  cloth  ...........................  ^gQ 

SHORING, 

And  its  Application.     By  G.  H.  BLAGROVE.    Crown  8vo,  cloth.       tQQ 

ARCHES,    PIERS,    BUTTRESSES. 

By  WILLIAM  BLAND.     12mo,  cloth  ......................... 


PRACTICAL    BRICKLAYING. 

General  Principles  of  Bricklaying;  Arch  Drawing,  Cutting,  and  Setting: 
Pointing;  Paving,  Tiling,  &c.  By  ADAM  HAMMOND.  With  68  Wood- 
cuts. 12mo,  cloth  .......................................  <(JQ 

ART  OF  PRACTICAL  BRICK=CUTTING  AND  SETTING. 

By  ADAM  HAMMOND.     With  90  Engravings.     12mo,  cloth.  .  .  .       .(JO 

BRICKWORK: 

Embodying  the  General  and  Higher  Principles  of  Bricklaying,  Cutting, 
and  Setting;    with  the  Application  of  Geometry  to  Roof  Tiling,  &c. 
By  F.  WALKER.     12mo,  cloth  .................  '  ............       ^QQ 

"Contains  all  that  a  student  needs  to  learn  from  books.  —  Building  News." 

BRICKS   AND   TILES, 

Rudimentary  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of.  Containing  an  Outline 
of  the  Principles  of  Brickmaking.  By  E.  DOBSON,  M.R.I.B.A.  Addi 
tions  by  C.  TOMLINSON,  F.R.S.  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth.  .  .  .$1.20 

PRACTICAL   BRICK    AND    TILE    BOOK. 

Comprising-  Brick  and  Tile  Making,  by  E.  DOBSON,  M.Inst.C.E.  ;  Prac- 
tical Bricklaying  by  A.  HAMMOND,  Brick-Cutting  and  Setting,  by  A. 
HAMMOND.  550  pp.  ,  with  270  Illustrations,  strongly  half-bound  .  $2.40 

PRACTICAL    MASONRY. 

A  Guide  to  the  Art  of  Stone  Cutting.  Comprising  the  Construction, 
Setting-Out,  and  Working  of  Stairs,  Circular  Work,  Arches,  Niches, 
Domes,  Pendentives,  Vaults,  Tracery  Windows,  &c,  ;  to  which  are 
added  Supplements  relating  to  Masonry  Estimating  and  Quantity  Sur- 
veying, and  to  Building  Stones  and  Marbles,  and  a  Glossary  of  Terms. 
For  the  Use  of  Students,  Masons,  and  Craftsmen.  By  W.  R.  PURCHASE, 
Building  Insoector  to  the  Borough  of  Hove.  Fifth  Edition,  Enlarged. 
Royal  8vo,  226  pp.,  with  52  Plates,  comprising  over  400  Diagrams, 
doth  ...................................................  $3.00 

MASONRY   AND   STONECUTTING, 

The  Principles  of  Masonic  Projection,  and  their  Application  to  Con- 
struction. By  E.  DOBSON,  M.R.I.B.A.  12mo,  cloth  .........  $1.00 

MODERN    LIGHTNING    CONDUCTORS. 

An  Illustrated  Suoplement  to  the  Report  of  the  Lightning  Research 
Committee  of  1905,  with  Notes  as  to  the  Methods  of  Protection,  and 
Specifications.  By  KILLINGWORTH  HEDGES,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.E.E., 
Honorary  Secretary  to  the  Lightning  Research  Committee,  Author  of 
"American  Street  Railways."  Medium  8vo,  cloth 

[Just  Published       Net  &3.0O 

"The  illustrations  are  very  interesting  and  give  one  a  clear  idea  of  what 
is  likely  to  happen  when  a  building  is  struck  by  lightning.  Mr.  Hedges' 
suggestions  of  possible  reasons  why  certain  protected  buildings  were  struck 


ARCHITECTURE,  BUILDING,  6r»c.  33 

are  instructive.  He  also  explains  the  modern  methods  of  fitting  buildings 
with  lightning  conductors.  To  the  ordinary  reader  the  book  will  be  of  in- 
terest, and  to  anyone  who  has  to  design  a  system  for  protecting  a  building 
from  lightning  strokes  it  will  be  helpful  " — Builder. 

PLUMBING: 

A  Text-Book  to  the  Practice  of  the  Art  or  Craft  of  the  Plumber.  With 
Chapters  upon  House  Drainage  and  Ventilation.  By  WM.  PATON 
BUCHAN.  Ninth  Edition,  with  512  Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  cloth. 

$1.40 

HEATING    BY    HOT    WATER, 

VENTILATION   AND   HOT  WATER   SUPPLY. 

By  WALTER  JONES,  M.I.M.E.  360  pages,  with  140  Illustrations. 
Medium  8vo,  cloth $2.50 

THE   PRACTICAL   PLASTERER: 

A  Compendium  of  Plain  and  Ornamental  Plaster  Work.  By  W.  KEMP. 
12mo,  cloth ^go 

CONCRETE:    ITS   NATURE   AND    USES. 

A  Book  for  Architects,  Builders,  Contractors,  and  Clerks  of  Works.  By 
G  L  SUTCLIPFE,  A.R.I.B.A.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
396  pp.,  with  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth.  .  .  .[Just  Published.  $3.50 

PORTLAND   CEMENT   FOR    USERS. 

By  the  late  HENRY  FAIJA,  M.Inst.C.E.  Fifth  Edition.  Revised  and 
Enlarged  by  D.  B.  BUTLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  12mo,  cloth $1.20 

LIMES,  CEMENTS,  MORTARS,  CONCRETES,  MASTICS, 

PLASTERING,   &c. 

By  G.  R.  BURNELL,  C.E.     Fifteenth  Edition.     12mo,  cloth..  ..       tQQ 

MEASURING    AND   VALUING    ARTIFICERS'   WORK 

(The  Student's  Guide  to  the  Practice  of).  Containing  Directions  for 
taking  Dimensions,  Abstracting  the  same,  and  bringing  the  Quantities 
into  Bill,  with  Tables  of  Constants  for  Valuation  of  Labour,  and  for  the 
Calculation  of  Areas  and  Solidities.  Originally  edited  by  E.  DOBSON, 
Architect.  With  Additions  by  E.  W.  TARN,  M.A.  Seventh  Edition, 
Revised.  12mo,  cloth $3.00 

QUANTITIES   AND   MEASUREMENTS, 

In  Bricklayers',  Masons',  Plasterers',  Plumbers',  Painters',  Paper 
hangers',  Gilders',  Smiths',  Carpenters'  and  Joiners'  Work.  By  A.  C- 

BEATON,  Surveyor.     12mo,  cloth .60 

"This  book  is  indispensable  to  builders  and  their  quantity  clerks." — Eng* 
lish  Mechanic. 

TECHNICAL   GUIDE,    MEASURER,    AND    ESTIMATOR. 

For  Builders  and  Surveyors.  Containing  Technical  Directions  for  Meas- 
uring Work  in  all  the  Building  Trades,  Complete  Specifications  for 
Houses,  Roads,  and  Drains,  and  an  Easy  Method  of  Estimating  the 
parts  of  a  Building  collectively.  By  A.  C.  BEATON.  Tenth  Edition. 

Waistcoat -pocket  size .60 

"No   builder,   architect,   surveyor,   or   valuer    should    be    without    his 
'Beaton.'  " — Building  News. 

COMPLETE    MEASURER; 

Setting  forth  the  Measurement  of  Boards,  Glass,  Timber,  and  Stone. 
By  R.  HORTON.  Sixth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.60 

ARCHITECTURAL   PERSPECTIVE. 

The  whole  Course  and  Operations  of  the  Draughtsman  in  Drawing  a 
Large  House  in  Linear  Perspective.  Illustrated  by  43  Folding  Plates. 
By  F.  O.  FERGUSON.  Third  Edition.  8vo,  boards $1.50 


34        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
PERSPECTIVE    FOR   BEGINNERS 

For  Students  and  Amateurs  in  Architecture,  Painting,  &c.  By  G. 
PYNE.  Crown  8vo,  cloth .80 

PRACTICAL    RULES   ON    DRAWING. 

For  the  Builder  and  Young  Student  in  Architecture.     By  G.  PYNE.     4to 

$3.00 

THE   MECHANICS   OF   ARCHITECTURE. 

A  Treatise  on  Applied  Mechanics,  especially  Adapted  to  the  Use  of 
Architects.  By  E.  W.  TARN,  M.A.,  Author  of  "The  Science  of  Build- 
ing," &c.  Second  Edition,  Enlarged.  Illustrated  with  125  Diagrams. 

12mo,  cloth $3.00 

' '  The  book  is  a  very  useful  and  helpful  manual  of  architectural  mechan- 
ics."—  Builder. 

A    HANDY    BOOK    OF   VILLA    ARCHITECTURE. 

Being  a  Series  of  Designs  for  Villa  Residences  in  various  Styles.  With 
Outline  Specifications  and  Estimates.  By  C.  WICKES,  Architect,  Au- 
thor of  "The  Spires  and  Towers  of  England,"  &c.  61  Plates,  4to,  half- 
morocco,  gilt  edges $12.00 

DECORATIVE    PART   OF   CIVIL   ARCHITECTURE. 

By  Sir  WILLIAM  CHAMBERS,  F.R.S.  With  Portrait,  Illustrations,  Notes, 
and  an  EXAMINATION  OF  GRECIAN  ARCHITECTURE,  by  JOSEPH  GWILT, 
F.S.A.  Revised  and  Edited  by  W.  H.  LEEDS.  66  Plates,  4to,  cloth. 

$8.40 
HINTS  TO   YOUNG    ARCHITECTS. 

By  GEORGE  WIGHTWICK,  Architect,  Author  of  "The  Palace  of  Archi- 
tecture," &c.,  &c.  Sixth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged  by  G.  HUSKIS- 
SON  GUILLAUME,  Architect.  12mo,  cloth $1.40 

THE   ARCHITECTS'   GUIDE. 

Being  a  Text-book  of  Useful  Information  for  Architects,  Engineers,  Sur- 
veyors, Contractors,  Clerks  of  Works,  &c.  By  F.  ROGERS.  12mo, 

$1.40 
ARCHITECTURE— ORDERS. 

The  Orders  and  their  ^Esthetic  Principles.     By  W.  H.  LEEDS.     12mo. 

.60 
ARCHITECTURE— STYLES. 

The  History  and  Description  of  the  Styles  of  Architecture  of  Various 
Countries,  from  the  Earliest  to  the  Present  Period.  By  T.  TALBOT 
BURY,  F.R.I. B. A.,  &c.  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth .80 

"ORDERS  AND  STYLES  OF  ARCHITECTURE,"  in  One  Vol $1.40 

ARCHITECTURE— DESIGN. 

The  Principles  of  Design  in  Architecture,  as  deducible  f  rom  Nature  and 
exemplified  in  the  Works  of  the  Greek  and  Gothic  Architects.  By  EDW. 
L.  GARBETT,  Architect.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

"We  know  no  work  that  we  would  sooner  recommend  to  an  attentive 
reader  desirous  to  obtain  clear  views  of  the  nature  of  architectural  art.  The 
book  is  a  valuable  one." — Builder. 

***  The  three  preceding  Works  in  One  handsome  Vol.,  half -bound,  entitled 
"MODERN  ARCHITECTURE,"  price $2.40 

ARCHITECTURAL    MODELLING    IN    PAPER, 

The  Art  of.     By  T.  A.  RICHARDSON.     12mo,  cloth .(50 


SANITATION  AND   WATER  SUPPLY.  35 

VITRUVIUS-THE      ARCHITECTURE      OF      MARCUS 

V1TRUVIUS   POLLIO. 

In  Ten  Books.  Translated  from  the  Latin  by  J.  GWILT.  With  23 
Plates.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

N.B. — This  is  the'jonly  Edition  of  VITRUVIUS  procurable  at  a  moderate  price. 

GRECIAN    ARCHITECTURE, 

An  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Beauty  in;  with  an  Historical  View 
of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Art  in  Greece.  By  the  EARL  OF  ABER- 
DEEN   .40 

***  The  two  preceding  Works  in  One  handsome  Volume,  half -bound,  entitled 
"ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE,"  price $2.40 

ACOUSTICS   OF    PUBLIC   BUILDINGS: 

The  Laws  of  Sound  as  applied  to  the  Arrangement  of  Buildings.  By 
Professor  T.  ROGERS  SMITH,  F.R.I. B.A.  New  Edition,  revised.  With 
numerous  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth .60 

LIGHT: 

An  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Optics.  Designed  for  the  Use  of 
Students  of  Architecture,  Engineering,  and  other  Applied  Sciences.  By 
E.  W.  TARN,  M.A.  12mo,  cloth .60 


SANITATION  AND   WATER  SUPPLY. 


THE   HEALTH    OFFICER'S   POCKET-BOOK. 

A  Guide  to  Sanitary  Practice  and  Law.  For  Medical  Officers  of  Health, 
Sanitary  Inspectors,  Members  of  Sanitary  Authorities,  &c.  By  EDWARD 
F.  WILLOUGHBY,  M.D.  (Lond.),  &c.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  En- 
larged. Fcap.  8vo,  leather $4.00 

THE   WATER   SUPPLY   OF   TOWNS   AND   THE   CON- 
STRUCTION OF  WATER-WORKS. 

By  PROFESSOR  W.  K.  BURTON,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Second  Edition,  Re- 
vised and  Extended.  Royal  8vo,  cloth.  (See  page  12.) $9.00 

THE   WATER   SUPPLY   OF   CITIES   AND   TOWNS. 

By  WILLIAM  HUMBER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  and  M.Inst.M.E.  Imp.  4to,  half- 
bound  morocco.  (See  page  12.) $45.00 

WATER   AND    ITS    PURIFICATION. 

A  Handbook  for  the  Use  of  Local  Authorities,  Sanitary  Officers,  and 
others  interested  in  Water  Supply.  By  S.  RIDEAL,  D.Sc.  Lond.,  F.I.C. 
Second  Edition,  Revised,  with  Additions,  including  numerous  Illustra- 
tions and  Tables.  12mo,  cloth $3.0O 

RURAL   WATER    SUPPLY. 

A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Supply  of  Water  and  Construction  of 
Water-works  for  Small  Country  Districts.  By  ALLAN  GREENWELL, 
A.M.I.C.E.,  and  W.  T.  CURRY,  A.M.I.C.E.  Revised  Edition.  12mo, 
doth $2.0O 

WATER    ENGINEERING. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Measurement,  Storage,  Conveyance,  ana 
Utilisation  of  Water  for  the  Supply  of  Towns.  By  C.  SLAGG,  A.M. 
Inst.C.E $3.00 


36        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &•  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
THE    PURIFICATION   OF   SEWAGE. 

Being  a  Brief  Account  of  the  Scientific  Principles  of  Sewage  Purifica- 
tion, and  their  Practical  Application.  By  SIDNEY  BARWISE,  M.D 
(Lond.),  B.Sc.,  M.R.C.S.,  D.P.H.  (Camb.),  Fellow  of  the  Sanitary  In- 
stitute, Medical  Officer  of  Health  to  the  Derbyshire  County  Council. 
Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged,  with  an  Appendix  on  the  Analy- 
sis of  Sewage  and  Sewage  Effluents.  With  numerous  Illustrations  and 

Diagrams.     Demy  8vo,  cloth Net  $3.50 

SUMMARY  OP  CONTENTS: — SEWAGE:  ITS  NATURE  AND  COMPOSITION. — 
THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  SEWAGE. — VARIETIES  OF  SEWAGE  AND  THE  CHANGES  IT 
UNDERGOES. — RIVER  POLLUTION  AND  ITS  EFFECTS. — THE  LAND  TREATMENT 
OF  SEWAGE. — PRECIPITATION,  PRECIPITANTS,  AND  TANKS.— THE  LIQUEFAC- 
TION OF  SEWAGE. — PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN  THE  OXIDATION  OF  SEWAGE. — 
ARTIFICIAL  PROCESSES  OF  PURIFICATION. — AUTOMATIC  DISTRIBUTORS  AND 
SPECIAL  FILTERS. — PARTICULARS  OF  SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 
SCHEMES  REQUIRED  BY  LOCAL  GOVERNMENT  BOARD. — USEFUL  DATA. — Ap- 
pendix: THE  APPARATUS  REQUIRED  FOR  SEWAGE  ANALYSIS. — STANDARD 
SOLUTIONS  USED  IN  THE  METHOD  OF  SEWAGE  ANALYSIS. — Tables:  ESTI- 
MATION OF  AMMONIA. — NITROGEN  AS  NITRATES. — INCUBATOR  TEST,  OXYGEN 
ABSORBED. — To  CONVERT  GRAINS  PER  GALLON  TO  PARTS  PER  100,000. 

SANITARY  WORK  IN  SMALL  TOWNS  AND  VILLAGES. 

By  CHARLES  SLAGG,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Third  Edition,  Enlarged.  12mo 
cloth $3.00 

VENTILATION: 

A  Text-Book  to  the  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Ventilating  Buildings.  By 
W.  P.  BUCHAN.  With  170  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $1.40 


CARPENTRY,   TIMBER,   ETC. 


PRACTICAL   FORESTRY. 

And  its  Bearing  on  the  Improvement  of  Estates.  By  CHARLES  E. 
CURTIS,  F.S.I.,  Professor  of  Forestry,  Field  Engineering,  and  General 
Estate  Management,  at  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Downton.  Second 

Edition,  Revised.     12mo,  cloth $1.40 

PREFATORY  REMARKS. — OBJECTS  OF  PLANTING. — CHOICE  OF  A  FORESTER. 
— CHOICE  OF  SOIL  AND  SITE. — LAYING  OUT  OF  LAND  FOR  PLANTATIONS. — 
PREPARATION  OF  THE  GROUND  FOR  PLANTING. — DRAINAGE. — PLANTING. — 
DISTANCES  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  TREES  IN  PLANTATIONS. — TREES  AND 
GROUND  GAME. — ATTENTION  AFTER  PLANTING. — THINNING  OF  PLANTATIONS. 
— PRUNING  OF  FOREST  TREES. — REALIZATION. — METHODS  OF  SALE. — 
MEASUREMENT  OF  TIMBER. — MEASUREMENT  AND  VALUATION  OF  LARCH'S 
PLANTATION. — FIRE  LINES. — COST  OF  PLANTING. 

WOODWORKING    MACHINERY. 

Its  Rise,  Progress,  and  Construction.  With  Hints  on  the  Management 
of  Saw  Mills  and  the  Economical  Conversion  of  Timber.  Illustrated 
with  Examples  of  Recent  Designs  by  leading  English,  French,  and 
American  Engineers.  By  M.  Powis  BALE,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E. 
Second  Edition,  Revised,  with  large  Additions.  8vo,  440  pp.,  cloth, 

$3.50 
SAW   MILLS. 

Their  Arrangement  and  Management,  and  the  Economical  Conversion 
of  Timber.  By  M.  Powis  BALE,  M.Inst.C.E.,  M.I.Mech.E.  Second 
Edition,  Revised.  12mo,  cloth $4.00 


CARPENTRY,  TIMBER,  6«c.  37 

THE   ELEMENTARY   PRINCIPLES   OF   CARPENTRY. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Pressure  and  Equilibrium  of  Timber  Framing,  the 
Resistance  of  Timber,  and  the  Construction  of  Floors,  Arches,  Bridges, 
Roofs,  Uniting  Iron  and  Stone  with  Timber,  &c.  To  which  is  added 
an  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Properties  of  Timber,  &c.,  with  Descrip- 
tions of  the  kinds  of  Wood  used  in  Building;  also  numerous  Tables 
of  the  Scantlings  of  Timber  for  different  purposes,  the  Specific  Gravi- 
ties of  Materials,  &c.  By  THOMAS  TREDGOLD,  C.E.  With  an  Appendix 
of  Specimens  of  Various  Roofs  of  Iron  and  Stone,  Illustrated.  Seventh 
Edition,  thoroughly  Revised  and  considerably  Enlarged  by  E.  WYND- 
HAM  TARN,  M.A.,  Author  of  "The  Science  of  Building,"  &c.  With 
61  Plates,  Portrait  of  the  Author,  and  several  Woodcuts.  In  One 
large  Vol.,  4to,  cloth $10.00 

THE   CARPENTER'S   GUIDE. 

Or,  Book  of  Lines  for  Carpenters ;  comprising  all  the  Elementary  Prin- 
ciples essential  for  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  Carpentry.  Founded  on 
the  late  PETER  NICHOLSON'S  standard  work.  A  New  Edition,  Revised 
by  ARTHUR  ASHPITEL,  F.S.A.  Together  with  Practical  Rules  on 
Drawing,  by  GEORGE  PYNE.  With  74  Plates,  4to,  cloth $7.50 

CARPENTRY   AND   JOINERY— 

The  Elementary  Principles  of  Carpentry.  Chiefly  composed  from  the 
Standard  Work  of  T.  TREDGOLD.  With  Additions  and  a  Treatise  on 
Joinery  by  E.  W.  TARN,  M.A.  Eighth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth.  $1.40 

Atlas  of  35  Plates  to  accompany  and  illustrate  the  foregoing  book. 

With  Descriptive  Letterpress.     4to $2.40 

ROOF   CARPENTRY: 

Practical  Lessons  in  the  Framing  of  Wood  Roofs.  For  the  use  of 
Working  Carpenters.  By  GEO.  COLLINGS.  12mo,  cloth .g() 

CIRCULAR   WORK   IN   CARPENTRY   AND   JOINERY. 

A  practical  Treatise  on  Circular  Work  of  Single  and  Double  Curvature. 
By  GEORGE  COLLINGS.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

HANDRAILINQ   COMPLETE    IN    EIGHT   LESSONS. 

On  the  Square-Cut  System.  By  J.  S.  Goldthorp,  Teacher  of  Geometry 
and  Building  Construction  at  the  Halifax  Mechanics'  Institute.  With 
Eight  Plates  and  over  150  Practical  Exercises.  4to,  cloth $1.40 

PRACTICAL   TREATISE   ON    HANDRAILING: 

Showing  New  and  Simple  Methods.  By  GEO.  COLLINGS.  Third  Edi- 
tion, including  a  Treatise  on  Stairbuilding.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

THE    CABINET=MAKER'S    GUIDE    TO    THE    ENTIRE 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   CABINET   WORK. 

By  RICHARD  BITMEAD.  Illustrated  with  Plans,  Sections  and  Working 
Drawings.  12mo,  cloth $1.0O 

THE   JOINTS   MADE    AND    USED    BY   BUILDERS. 

By  W.  J.  CHRISTY.     With  160  Woodcuts.     12mo,  cloth $1.20 

TIMBER    IMPORTER'S,    TIMBER   MERCHANT'S,   AND 

BUILDER'S  STANDARD  GUIDE. 

By  R.  E.  GRANDY.     12mo,  cloth .80 

TIMBER  MERCHANT'S  and  BUILDER'S  COMPANION. 

Containing  New  and  Copious  Tables  of  the  Reduced  Weight  and 
Measurement  of  Deals  and  Battens  of  all  sizes  and  other  Useful  Tables 
for  the  use  of  Timber  Merchants  and  Builders.  By  WILLIAM  DOWSING. 
Fifth  Edition,  Revised  and  Corrected.  12mo,  cloth $1.20 


38        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  6-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
THE    PRACTICAL   TIMBER   MERCHANT. 

Being  a  Guide  for  the  Use  of  Building  Contractors,  Surveyors,  Builders, 
&c.,  comprising  useful  Tables  for  all  purposes  connected  with  the 
Timber  Trade,  Marks  of  Wood,  Essay  on  the  Strength  of  Timber, 
Remarks  on  the  Growth  of  Timber,  &c.  By  W.  RICHARDSON.  Second 
Edition.  Fcap.  8vo,  cloth $1.40 

PACKING=CASE   TABLES. 

Showing  the  number  of  Superficial  Feet  in  Boxes  or  Packing-Cases, 
from  six  inches  square  and  upwards.  By  W.  RICHARDSON,  Timber 
Broker.  Fourth  Edition.  Oblong  4to,  cloth $1.40 

GUIDE   TO   SUPERFICIAL   MEASUREMENT. 

Tables  calculated  from  1  to  200  inches  in  length,  by  1  to  108  inches  in 
breadth.  For  the  use  of  Architects,  Surveyors,  Engineers,  Timber 
Merchants,  Builders,  &c.  By  J.  HAWKINGS.  Fifth  Edition.  12mo, 
doth $1.40 


DECORATIVE  ARTS,  ETC. 


SCHOOL    OF    PAINTING    FOR    THE    IMITATION    OF 

WOODS  AND   MARBLES. 

As  Taught  and  Practised  by  A.  R.  VAN  DER  BURG  and  P.  VAN  DER 
BURG,  Directors  of  the  Rotterdam  Painting  Institutions.  Royal  folio 
18*  by  12*  in.,  Illustrated  with  24  full-size  Coloured  Plates;  also  12 
plain  Plates,  comprising  154  Figures.  Fourth  Edition,  cloth. 

Net  $10.00 
LIST  OF  PLATES. 

1.  VARIOUS  TOOLS  REQUIRED  FOR  WOOD  PAINTING. — 2,3.  WALNUT:  PRE- 
LIMINARY STAGES  OF  GRAINING  AND  FINISHED  SPECIMEN. — 4.  TOOLS  USED 
FOR  MARBLE  PAINTING  AND  METHOD  OF  MANIPULATION. — 5,  6.  ST.  REMI 
MARBLE;  EARLIER  OPERATIONS  AND  FINISHED  SPECIMEN. — 7.  METHODS  OF 
SKETCHING  DIFFERENT  GRAINS,  KNOTS,  &c. — 8,  9.  ASH.  PRELIMINARY 
STAGES  AND  FINISHED  SPECIMEN. — 10.  METHODS  OF  SKETCHING  MARBLE 
GRAINS. — 11,12.  BRECHE  MARBLE;  PRELIMINARY  STAGES  OF  WORKING  AND 
FINISHED  SPECIMEN. — 13.  MAPLE;  METHODS  OF  PRODUCING  THE  DIFFERENT 
GRAINS. — 14,  15.  BIRD'S-EYE  MAPLE;  PRELIMINARY  STAGES  AND  FINISHED 
SPECIMEN. — 16.  METHODS  OF  SKETCHING  THE  DIFFERENT  SPECIES  OF  WHITE 
MARBLE. — 17,  18.  WHITE  MARBLE;  PRELIMINARY  STAGES  OF  PROCESS  AND 
FINISHED  SPECIMEN. — 19.  MAHOGANY;  SPECIMENS  OF  VARIOUS  GRAINS  AND 
METHODS  OF  MANIPULATION. — 20.  21,  MAHOGANY;  EARLIER  STAGES  AND 
FINISHED  SPECIMEN. — 22,  23,  24.  SIENNA  MARBLE;  VARIETIES  OF  GRAIN, 
PRELIMINARY  STAGES  AND  FINISHED  SPECIMEN. — 25,  26,  27.  JUNIPER  WOOD  ; 
METHODS  OF  PRODUCING  GRAIN,  &c. ;  PRELIMINARY  STAGES  AND  FINISHED 
SPECIMEN. — 28,  29,  30.  VERT  DE  MER  MARBLE;  VARIETIES  OF  GRAIN  AND 
METHODS  OF  WORKING,  UNFINISHED  AND  FINISHED  SPECIMENS. — 31,  32,  33. 
OAK;  VARIETIES  OF  GRAIN,  TOOLS  EMPLOYED  AND  METHODS  OF  MANIPU- 
LATION, PRELIMINARY  STAGES  AND  FINISHED  SPECIMEN. — 34,  35,  36.  WAUL- 
SORT  MARBLE;  VARIETIES  OF  GRAIN,  UNFINISHED  AND  FINISHED  SPECIMENS. 

ELEMENTARY    DECORATION: 

As  Applied  to  Dwelling-Houses,  &c.     By  J.  W.  FACEY.     12mo,  cloth. 

80 

PRACTICAL   HOUSE    DECORATION. 

A  Guide  to  the  Art  of  Ornamental  Painting,  the  arrangement  of  Colours 
in  Apartments,  and  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Design.  By  JAMES  W. 

FACEY.     12mo,  cloth $1.00 

*+*  The  last  two  works  in  One  handsome  Vol.,  half-bound,  entitled  "HousE 
DECORATION,  ELEMENTARY  AND  PRACTICAL,"  price $2.00 


DECORATIVE  ARTS,  &>c.  39 

ORNAMENTAL  ALPHABETS,  ANCIENT  &  MEDI/CVAL. 

P"rom  the  Eighth  Century  with  Numerals;    including  Gothic.  Church- 
Text,  large  and  small,  German,  Italian,  Arabesque,  Initials  for  Illum- 
ination, Monograms,  Crosses,  &c.,  for  the  use  of  Architectural  and  En- 
fineering  Draughtsmen,  Missal  Painters,  Masons,  Decorative  Painters, 
lithographers,  Engravers,  Carvers,  &c.,  &c.     Collected  and  Engraved 
by  F.  DELAMOTTE,  and  printed  in  Colours.     New  and  Cheaper  Edition. 
Royal  8vo,  oblong,  ornamental  boards $1.00 


MODERN    ALPHABETS,    PLAIN    AND    ORNAMENTAL. 

Including  German,  Old  English,  Saxon,  Italic,  Perspective,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  Court  Hand  Engrossing,  Tuscan,  Riband,  Gothic,  Rustic,  and 
Arabesque ;  with  several  Original  Designs,  and  an  Analysis  of  the  Roman 
and  Old  English  Alphabets,  large  and  small,  and  Numerals,  for  the  use 
of  Draughtsmen,  Surveyors,  Masons,  Decorative  Painters,  Lithog- 
raphers, Engravers,  Carvers,  &c.  Collected  and  Engraved  by  F.  DELA- 
MOTTE,  and  printed  in  Colours.  New  and  Cheaper  Edition.  Royal  8vo, 
oblong,  ornamental  boards SI. 00 

MEDIEVAL   ALPHABETS   AND    INITIALS. 

By  F.  G.  DELAMOTTE.  Containing  21  Plates  and  Illuminated  Title 
printed  in  Gold  and  Colours.  With  an  Introduction  by  J.  WILLIS 
BROOKS.  Fifth  Edition.  Small  4to,  ornamental  boards $2.00 

A    PRIMER   OF   THE   ART   OF    ILLUMINATION. 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners;  with  a  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  the  Art, 
Practical  Directions  for  its  Exercise,  and  Examples  taken  from  Illumi- 
nated MSS.,  printed  in  Gold  and  Colours.  By  F.  DELAMOTTE.  New 
and  Cheaper  Edition.  Small  4to,  ornamental  boards $2.40 

THE    EMBROIDERER'S   BOOK   OF    DESIGN. 

Containing  Initials,  Emblems,  Cyphers,  Monograms,  Ornamental  Bor- 
ders, Ecclesiastical  Devices,  Mediaeval  and  Modern  Alphabets,  and 
National  Emblems.  Collected  by  F.  DELAMOTTE,  and  printed  in 
Colours.  Oblong  royal  8vo,  ornamental  wrapper $1.00 

MARBLE    DECORATION 

And  the  Terminology  of  British  and  Foreign  Marbles.  A  Handbook 
for  Students.  By  GEORGE  H.  BLAGROVE,  Author  of  "Shoring  and  its 
Application,"  &c.  With  28  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $1.40 

THE    DECORATOR'S   ASSISTANT. 

A  Modern  Guide  for  Decorative  Artists  and  Amateurs,  Painters,  Writers, 
Gilders,  &c.  Containing  upwards  of  600  Receipts,  Rules,  and  Instruc- 
tions; with  a  variety  of  Information  for  General  Work  connected  with 
every  Class  of  Interior  and  Exterior  Decorations,  &c.  Eight  Edition 
12mo ,4Q 

GRAMMAR   OF   COLOURING. 

Applied  to  Decorative  Painting  and  the  Arts.  By  G.  FIELD.  New 
Edition,  enlarged  by  E.  A.  DAVIDSON.  With  Coloured  Plates.  12mo, 
doth $1.20 

HOUSE     PAINTING,     GRAINING,     MARBLING,     AND 

SIGN   WRITING. 

With  a  Course  of  Elementary  Drawing,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful 
Receipts.  By  E.  A.  DAVIDSON.  Ninth  Edition.  Coloured  Plates. 
12mo,  cloth.  '. $2.00 

ART   OF   LETTER    PAINTING    MADE    EASY. 

By  J.  G.  BADENOCH.  With  12  full-page  Engravings  of  Examples.    12mo, 

.60 


40        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
PAINTING    POPULARLY    EXPLAINED. 

By  THOMAS  JOHN  GULLICK,  Painter,  and  JOHN  TIMES,  F.S.A.  Includ- 
ing Fresco,  Oil,  Mosaic,  Water  Colour,  Water-Glass,  Tempera,  En- 
caustic, Miniature,  Painting  on  Ivory,  Vellum,  Pottery,  Enamel,  Glass, 

&c.     Sixth  Edition.     12mo,  cloth * $2.00 

***  Adopted  as  a  Prize  Book  at  South  Kensington. 

GLASS   STAINING,    AND    PAINTING    ON    GLASS. 

From  the  German  of  Dr.  GESSERT  and  EMANUEL  OTTO  FROMBERG. 
With  an  Appendix  on  The  Art  of  Enamelling.  12mo,  cloth.  .$1.00 

WOOD-CARVING    FOR   AMATEURS. 

With  Hints  on  Design.  By  A  LADY.  With  10  Plates.  New  and 
Cheaper  Edition.  12mo,  in  emblematic  wrapper t#Q 


NATURAL  SCIENCE,   ETC. 


THE   VISIBLE    UNIVERSE. 

Chapters  on  the  Origin  and  Construction  of  the  Heavens.  By  J.  E. 
GORE,  F.R.A.S.,  Author  of  "Star  Groups,"  &c.  Illustrated  by  6 
Stellar  Photographs  and  12  Plates.  Demy  8vo,  cloth, S3. 75 

STAR    GROUPS. 

A  Student's  Guide  to  the  Constellations.  By  J.  ELLARD  GORE,  F.R.A.S. 
M.R.I. A.,  &c.,  Author  of  "The  Visible  Universe,"  "The  Scenery  of  the 
Heavens,"  &c.  With  30  Maps.  Small  4to,  cloth $2.00 

AN    ASTRONOMICAL   GLOSSARY. 

Or,  Dictionary  of  Terms  used  in  Astronomy.  With  Tables  of  Data  and 
Lists  of  Remarkable  and  Interesting  Celestial  Objects.  By  J.  ELLARD 
GORE,  F.R.A.S.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

ASTRONOMY. 

By  the  late  Rev.  R.  MAIN,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  Third  Edition,  revised  by 
WILLIAM  THYNNE  LYNN,  B. A.,  F.R.A.S.  12mo,  cloth .go 

THE   MICROSCOPE. 

Its  Construction  and  Management.  Including  Technique,  Photo-micro- 
graphy, and  the  Past  and  Future  of  the  Microscope.  By  Dr.  HENRI 
VAN  HEURCK,  Re-Edited  and  Augumented  from  the  Fourth  French 
Edition,  and  Translated  by  WYNNE  E.  BAXTER,  F.G.S.  Imp.  8vo, 
doth $7.00 

MANUAL   OF   THE   MOLLUSCA: 

A  Treatise  on  Recent  and  Fossil  Shells.  By  Dr.  S.  P.  WOODWARD, 
A.L.S.  With  Appendix  by  RALPH  TATE,  A.L.S.,  F.G.S.  With 
numerous  Plates  and  300  Woodcuts.  12mo,  cloth, $3.00 

THE   TWIN    RECORDS   OF   CREATION. 

Or,  Geology  and  Genesis,  their  Perfect  Harmony  and  Wonderful  Con- 
cord. By  G.  W.  V.  LE  VAUX.  8vo,  cloth $2.00 

LARDNER'S   HANDBOOKS   OF   SCIENCE. 
HANDBOOK    OF    MECHANICS. 

Enlarged  and  re-written  by  B.  LOEWY,  F.R.A.S.    8vo,  cloth .  .$2.40 


CHEMICAL  MANUFACTURES,  CHEMISTRY,  &c.  41 

LARDNER'S    HANDBOOKS    OF    SCIENCE— Continued. 

HANDBOOK     OF     HYDROSTATICS     AND     PNEU- 
MATICS. 

Revised  and  Enlarged  by  B.  LOEWY,  F.R.A.S.    Post  8vo,  cloth,  $2.00 

HANDBOOK   OF    HEAT. 

Edited  and  re-written  by  B.  LOEWY,  F.R.A.S.    Post  8vo,  cloth,  $2.40 

HANDBOOK   OF   OPTICS. 

New  Edition.     Edited    by  T.  OLVER    HARDING,  B.A.     Small  8vo, 
cloth $2.OO 

ELECTRICITY,   MAGNETISM,   AND  ACOUSTICS. 

Edited  by  GEO.  C.  FOSTER.  B.A.     Small  8vo,  cloth $2.00 

HANDBOOK   OF    ASTRONOMY. 

Revised  and  Edited  by  EDWIN  DUNKIN,  F.R.A.S.    8vo,  cloth,  $3.80 

MUSEUM    OF   SCIENCE   AND   ART. 

With  upwards  of  1,200  Engravings.    In  Six  Double  Vols, cloth,  $7.50 
Half-morocco $12.60 

NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY    FOR    SCHOOLS.. .  .$1.40 

ANIMAL    PHYSIOLOGY    FOR   SCHOOLS $1.40 

THE    ELECTRIC   TELEGRAPH. 

Revised  by  E.  B.  BRIGHT,  F.R.A.S.     Fcap.  8vo,  cloth $1.00 


CHEMICAL  MANUFACTURES, 
CHEMISTRY,   ETC. 


THE    OIL    FIELDS    OF    RUSSIA    AND    THE     RUSSIAN 

PETROLEUM   INDUSTRY. 

A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Exploration,  Exploitation,  and  Manage- 
ment of  Russian  Oil  Properties,  including  Notes  on  the  Origin  of 
Petroleum  in  Russia,  a  Description  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Liquid  Fuel,  and  a  Translation  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  concern- 
ing Russian  Oil  Properties.  By  A.  BEEBY  THOMPSON,  A.M.I.M.E., 
late  Chief  Engineer  and  Manager  of  the  European  Petroleum  Company's 
Russian  Oil  Properties.  About  500  pp.,  with  numerous  Illustrations 
and  Photographic  Plates,  and  a  Map  of  the  Balakhany-Saboontchy- 
Romany  Oil  Field.  Super-royal  8vo,  cloth Net  $7.50 

THE  ANALYSIS  OF  OILS  AND  ALLIED  SUBSTANCES. 

By  A.  C.  WRIGHT,  M.A.Oxon.,  B.Sc.,  Lond.,  formerly  Assistant  Lecturer 
in  Chemistry  at  the  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds,  and  Lecturer  in  Chemis- 
try at  the  Hull  Technical  School.  Demy  8vo,  cloth $3.50 

A   HANDYBOOK   FOR   BREWERS. 

Being  a  Practical  Guide  to  the  Art  of  Brewing  and  Malting.  Embracing 
the  Conclusions  of  Modern  Research  which  bear  upon  the  Practice  of 
Brewing.  By  HERBERT  EDWARDS  WRIGHT,  M.A.  Third  Edition, 
Enlarged.  530  pp.  12mo,  cloth In  press 

A  POCKET-BODK  OF  MENSURATION  AND  GAUGING. 

Containing  Tables,  Rules,  and  Memoranda  for  Revenue  Officers, 
Brewers,  Spirit  Merchants,  &c.  By  J.  B.  MANT,  Inland  Revenue. 
Second  Edition,  Revised.  18mo,  leather $1.60 


42        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S  CATALOGUE, 
THE   GAS   ENGINEER'S   POCKET=BOOK. 

Comprising  Tables,  Notes  and  Memoranda  relating  to  the  Manufacture, 
Distribution  and  Use  of  Coal  Gas  and  the  Construction  of  Gas  Works. 
By  H.  O'CONNOR,  A.M.  Inst.C.E.  Second  Edition,  Revised.  470  pp., 
12mo.  fully  Illustrated,  leather $3.50 

LIGHTING   BY   ACETYLENE 

Generators,  Burners,  and  Electric  Furnaces.  By  WILLIAM  E.  GIBBS, 
M.E.  With  66  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth. $1.50 

ENGINEERING   CHEMISTRY. 

A  Practical  Treatise  for  the  Use  of  Analytical  Chemists,  Engineers, 
Iron  Masters,  Iron  Founders,  Students  and  others.  Comprising 
Methods  of  Analysis  and  Valuation  of  the  Principal  Materials  used  in 
Engineering  Work,  with  numerous  Analyses,  Examples  and  Suggestions. 
By  H.  JOSHUA  PHILLIPS,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  Third  Edition,  Revised  and 
Enlarged.  12mo,  420  pp.,  with|Plates  and  Illustrations,  cloth,  $4.50 

NITRO=EXPLOSIVES. 

A  Practical  Treatise  concerning  the  Properties,  Manufacture,  and 
Analysis  of  Nitrated  Substances,  including  the  Fulminates,  Smokeless 
Powders,  and  Celluloid.  By  P.  GERALD  SANFORD,  F.I.C.,  Consulting 
Chemist  to  the  Cotton  Powder  Company,  Limited",  &c.  With  Illustra- 
tions. 12mo,  cloth $3.00 

A   HANDBOOK   OF   MODERN    EXPLOSIVES. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  and  Use  of  Dynamite,  Gun- 
Cotton,  Nitro-Glycerine  and  other  Explosive  Compounds,  including 
Collodion-Cotton.  With  Chapters  on  Explosives  in  Practical  Applica- 
tion. By  M.  EISSLER,  M.E.  Second  Edition,  Enlarged.  12mo,  cloth, 

$5.00 
DANGEROUS   GOODS. 

Their  Sources  and  Properties,  Modes  of  Storage  and  Transport.  With 
Notes  and  Comments  on  Accidents  arising  therefrom.  A  Guide  for 
the  Use  of  Government  and  Railway  Officials,  Steamship  Owners,  &c. 
By  H.  JOSHUA  PHILLIPS,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  12mo,  374  pp.;  cloth,  $3.50 

"Merits  a  wide  circulation,  and  an  intelligent,  appreciative  study." — 
Chemical  News. 

A  MANUAL  OF  THE  ALKALI  TRADE. 

Including  the  Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid,  Sulphate  of  Soda,  and 
Bleaching  Powder.  By  JOHN  LOMAS,  Alkali  Manufacturer.  With 
232  Illustrations  and  Working  Drawings.  Second  Edition,  with 
Additions.  Super-royal,  8vo,  cloth $10.00 

THE  BLOWPIPE  IN  CHEMISTRY,  MINERALOGY,  Etc. 

Containing  all  known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many  Working 
Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus.  By  Lieut  .-Colonel 
W.  A.  Ross,  R.A.,  F.G.S.  Second  Ed.,  Enlarged.  Ll2mo,  cloth,  $3.00 

THE   MANUAL   OF   COLOURS   AND    DYE=WARES. 

Their  Properties,  Applications,  Valuations,  Impurities  and  Sophistica- 
tions. For  the  Use  of  Dyers,  Printers,  Drysalters,  Brokers,  <fec.  By 
J.  W.  SLATER.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  greatly  Enlarged.  12mo, 

cloth $3.00 

"  There  is  no  other  work  which  covers  precisely  the  same  ground.  To 

students  preparing  for  examinations  in  dyeing  and  printing  it  will  prove 

exceedingly  useful." — Chemical  News. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  USEFUL  ARTS.  43 

THE   ARTISTS'   MANUAL   OF    PIGMENTS. 

Showing  their  Composition,  Conditions  of  Permanency,  Non-Per- 
manency, and  Adulterations,  &c.,  with  Tests  of  Purity.  By  H.  C. 

STAND  AGE.  Third  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

"  This  work  is  indeed  multum-in-parvo ,  and  we  can,  with  good  conscience, 

recommend  it  to  all  who  come  in  contact  with  pigments,  whether  as  makers, 

dealers,  or  users.  ' — Chemical  Review. 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS,   TRADES,  AND 
MANUFACTURES. 


THE    CULTIVATION    AND    PREPARATION    OF    PARA 

RUBBER. 

By  W.  H.  JOHNSON,  F.L.S.,  F.R.H.S.,  Director  of  Agriculture,  Gold 
Coast  Colony,  West  Africa,  Commissioned  by  Government  in  1902  to 
visit  Ceylon  to  Study  the  Methods  employed  there  in  the  Cultivation 
and  Preparation  of  Para  Rubber  and  other  Agricultural  Staples  for 
Market,  with  a  view  to  Introduce  them  into  West  Africa.  Demy  8vo, 

doth $3.OO 

SUMMARY  OP  CONTENTS: — INTRODUCTORY. — THE  PARA  RUBBER  TREE 
(Hevea  brasiliensis)  AT  HOME  AND  ABROAD. — CULTIVATION  OP  THE  TREE: — 
PROPAGATION.  —  SITE  FOR  PLANTATION.  —  DISTANCE  APART  TO  PLANT 
THE  TREES.  —  TRANSPLANTING.  —  CULTIVATION.  —  INSECT  PESTS  AND 
FUNGOID  DISEASES.  —  COLLECTING  THE  RUBBER:  —  VARIOUS  METHODS 
EMPLOYED  IN  TAPPING  RUBBER  TREES. — FLOW  OP  LATEX  INCREASED  BY 
WOUNDING  THE  TREE. — How  TO  TAP. — THE  PREPARATION  OF  RUBBER 
FROM  THE  LATEX: — LATEX. — VARIOUS  METHODS  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  PREP- 
ARATION OF  RUBBER. — SUGGESTED  METHOD  FOR  PREPARING  RUBBER. — 
SCRAP  RUBBER. — YIELD  OF  PARA  RUBBER  FROM  CULTIVATED  TREES: — 
CEYLON. — MALAY  PENINSULA. — GOLD  COAST,  WEST  AFRICA. — ESTABLISH- 
MENT AND  MAINTENANCE  OP  A  PARA  RUBBER  PLANTATION: — CEYLON. — 
MALAY  PENINSULA. — COMMERCIAL  VALUE  OF  THE  OIL  IN  HEVEA  SEEDS. 

RUBBER   HAND   STAMPS 

And  the  Manipulation  of  Rubber.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu- 
facture of  India-rubber  Hand  Stamps,  Small  Articles  of  India-rubber, 
The  Hektograph,  Special  Inks,  Cements,  and  Allied  Subjects.  By 
T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE,  A.M.,  Ph.D.  With  numerous  llllustrations. 
Square  8vo,  cloth $1.00 

PRACTICAL    PAPER=MAKING. 

A  Manual  for  Paper-Makers  and  Owners  and  Managers  of  Paper-Mills. 
With  Tables,  Calculations,  &c.  By  G.  CLAPPERTON,  Paper-Maker. 
With  Illustrations  of  Fibres  from  Micro-Photographs.  12mo,  cloth, 

$2.00 
THE   ART   OF    PAPER-MAKING. 

A  Practical  Handbook  of  the  Manufacture  of  Paper  from  Rags,  Esparto, 
Straw,  and  other  Fibrous  Materials.  Including  the  Manufacture  of 
Pulp  from  Wood  Fibre,  with  a  Description  of  the  Machinery  and 
Appliances  used.  To  which  are  added  Details  of  Processes  for  Recover- 
ing Soda  from  Waste  Liquors.  By  ALEXANDER  WATT.  With  Illus- 
trations. 12mo,  cloth $3.00 

A   TREATISE    ON    PAPER. 

For  Printers  and  Stationers.  With  an  Outline  of  Paper  Manufacture; 
Complete  Tables  of  Sizes,  and  Specimens  of  Different  Kinds  of  Paper. 
By  RICHARD  PARKINSON,  late  of  the  Manchester  Technical  School. 
Demy  8vo,  cloth $1.40 


44        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
THE    ART   OF   SOAP=MAKING. 

A  Practical  Handbook  of  the  Manufacture  of  Hard   and   Soft   Soaps, 

Toilet  Soaps,  &c.       Including  many  new  Processes,  and  a  Chapter  on 

-    the  Recovery  of  Glycerine  from  Waste  Leys.     By  ALEXANDER  WATT. 

Sixth    Edition,    including    an    Appendix    on    Modern    Candlemaking. 

12mo,  cloth &3.OO 

"A  thoroughly  practical  treatise.  We  congratulate  the  author  on  the 
success  of  his  endeavour  to  fill  a  void  in  English  technical  literature." — 
Nature. 

"The  work  will  prove  very  useful,  not  merely  to  the  technological  student, 
but  to  the  practical  soap  boiler  who  wishes  to  understand  the  theory  of  his 
art." — Chemical  News. 

THE    ART   OF    LEATHER   MANUFACTURE. 

A  Practical  Handbook,  in  which  the  Operations  of  Tanning,  Currying, 
and  Leather  Dressing  are  fully  Described,  and  the  Principles  of  Tanning 
Explained.  Together  with  a  Description  of  the  Arts  of  Glue  Boiling, 
Gut  Dressing,  &c.  By  ALEXANDER  WATT.  Fifth  Edition,  thoroughly 
Revised  and  Enlarged.  8vo,  cloth Nearly  ready,  $4.00 

ART   OF    BOOT   AND    SHOEMAKING, 

Including  Measurement,  Last-fitting,  Cutting-out,  Closing,  and  Making; 
with  a  Description  of  the  most  Approved  Machinery  employed.  By 

J.  B.  LENO.     12mo,  cloth ,80 

"By  far  the  best  work  ever  written  on  the  subject." — Scottish  Leather 
Trader. 

COTTON    MANUFACTURE. 

A  Manual  of  Practical  Instruction  of  the  Processes  of  Opening,  Carding, 
Combing,  Drawing,  Doubling  and  Spinning  of  Cotton,  the  Methods  of 
Dyeing,  &c.  For  the  use  of  Operatives,  Overlookers,  and  Manu- 
facturers. By  JOHN  LISTER,  Technical  Instructor,  Pendleton.  8vo, 
doth, $3.00 

"A  distinct  advance  in  the  literature  of  cotton  manufacture." — Machinery 
"It  is  thoroughly  reliable,  fulfilling  nearly  all  the  requirements  desired." 
Glasgow  Herald. 

WATCH    REPAIRING,    CLEANING,    AND    ADJUSTING. 

A  Practical  Handbook  dealing  with  the  Materials  and  Tools  Used  and 
the  Methods  of  Repairing,  Cleaning,  Altering,  and  Adjusting  all  kinds 
of  English  and  Foreign  Watches,  Repeaters,  Chronographs,  and  Marine 
Chronometers.  By  F.  J.  GARRARD,  Springer  and  Adjuster  of  Marine 
Chronometers  and  Deck  Watches  for  the  Admiralty.  With  over  200 
Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $3 .00 

MODERN   HOROLOGY,   IN  THEORY  AND   PRACTICE. 

Translated  from  the  French  of  CLAUDIUS  SAUNIER,  ex-Director  of  the 
School  of  Horology  at  Macon,  by  JULIEN  TRIPPLIN,  F.R.A.S.,  Besancon 
Watch  Manufacturer,  and  EDWARD  RIGG,  M.A.,  Assayer  in  the  Royal 
Mint.  With  Seventy-eight  Woodcuts  and  Twenty-two  Coloured 
Copper  Plates.  Second  Edition.  Super-royal,  8vo,  cloth. ..  -$15.00 
Half-calf $18*.00 

THE  WATCHMAKER'S  HANDBOOK. 

Intended  as  a  Workshop  Companion  for  those  engaged  in  Watchmaking 
and  the  Allied  Mechanical  Arts.  Translated  from  the  French  of 
CLAUDIUS  SAUNIER,  and  enlarged  by  JULIEN  TRIPPLIN,  F.R.A.S.,  and 
EDWARD  RIGG,  M.A.,  Assayer  in  the  Royal  Mint.  Fourth  Edition 
12mo,  cloth -$3.00 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  USEFUL  ARTS.  45 

CLOCKS,  WATCHES,  &  BELLS  for  PUBLIC  PURPOSES. 

A  Rudimentary  Treatise.  By  EDMUND  BECKETT,  LORD  GRIMTHORPE, 
LL.D.,  K.C.,  F.R.A.S.  Eighth  Edition,  with  new  List  of  Great  Bells 
and  an  Appendix  on  Weathercocks.  12mo,  cloth $1.80 

HISTORY  OF  WATCHES  &  OTHER  TIMEKEEPERS. 

By  JAMES  F.  KENDAL,  M.B.H.Inst.     .60  boards;  or  cloth,  gilt,  $1.00 

ELECTRO-PLATING  &  ELECTRO=REFININQ  of  METALS. 

Being  a  new  edition  of  ALEXANDER  WATT'S  "ELECTRO-DEPOSITION." 
Revised  and  Largely  Rewritten  by  ARNOLD  PHILIP,  B.Sc.,  A.I.E.E., 
Principal  Assistant  to  the  Admiralty  Chemist.  8vo,  cloth.  .  .  .$4.50 

ELECTROPLATING. 

A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Deposition  of  Copper,  Silver,  Nickel,  Gold, 
Aluminium,  Brass,  Platinum,  &c.,  &c.  By  J.  W.  URQUHART,  C.E. 
Fifth  Edition,  Revised.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

ELECTROMETALLURGY, 

Practically  Treated.  By  ALEXANDER  WATT.  Tenth  Edition,  enlarged 
and  revised.  With  Additional  Illustrations,  and  including  the  most 
Recent  Processes.  12mo,  cloth $1.40 

GOLDSMITH'S   HANDBOOK, 

Containing  full  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing, 
Colouring,  Collecting,  and  Refining.  The  Processes  of  Manipulation, 
Recovery  of  Waste,  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Gold;  Solders, 
Enamels,  and  other  useful  Rules  and  Recipes,  &c.  By  GEORGE  E. 
GEE.  Sixth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.20 

SILVERSMITH'S   HANDBOOK, 

On  the  same  plan  as  the  above.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE.  Third  Edition. 
12mo,  cloth.  .....; $1.20 

***  The  two  preceding  Works,  in  One  handsome  Volume,  half-bound,  en- 
titled "THE  GOLDSMITH'S  AND  SILVERSMITH'S  COMPLETE  HANDBOOK,"^. 80 

JEWELLER'S  ASSISTANT   IN   WORKING   IN   GOLD. 

A  Practical  Treatise  for  Masters  and  Workmen,  Compiled  from  the 
Experience  of  Thirty  Years'  Workshop  Practice.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE. 
12mo $3.00 

HALL-MARKING   OF   JEWELLERY. 

Comprising  an  account  of  all  the  different  Assay  Towns  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  with  the  Stamps  at  present  employed ;  also  the  Laws  relating 
to  the  Standards  and  Hall-marks  at  the  Various  Assay  Offices.  By 
GEORGE  E.  GEE.  12mo,  cloth $1.20 

ELECTROTYPING. 

The  Reproduction  and  Multiplication  of  Printing  Surfaces  and  Works 
of  Art  by  the  Electro-Deposition  of  Metals.  By  J.  W.  URQUHART,  C.E. 
12mo,  cloth $2.00 

MECHANICAL   DENTISTRY: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  the  Various  Kinds  of 
Artificial  Dentures,  comprising  also  Useful  Formulae,  Tables  and 
Receipts.  By  C.  HUNTER.  12mo,  cloth $1.20 

BRASS   FOUNDER'S   MANUAL: 

Instructions  for  Modelling,  Pattern  Making,  Moulding,  Turning,  &c. 
By  W.  GRAHAM.  12mo,  cloth , ,  •  • .  ,8Q 


46        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON'S  CATALOGUE 
SHEET   METAL   WORKER'S    INSTRUCTOR. 

Comprising  a  Selection  of  Geometrical  Problems  and  Practical  Rules 
for  Describing  the  Various  Patterns  Required  by  Zinc,  Sheet-Iron, 
C9pper,  and  Tin-Plate  Workers.  By  REUBEN  HENRY  WARN.  Piactical 
Tin-Plate  Worker.  New  Edition,  Revised  and  greatly  Enlarged  by 
JOSEPH  G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.M.E.  12mo,  254  pp..  with  430  Illustra- 
tions, cloth $3.00 

SHEET   METAL=WORKER'S   GUIDE. 

A  Practical  Handbook  for  Tinsmiths,  Coppersmiths,  Zincworkers,  &c  , 
with  46  Diagrams  and  Working  Patterns.  By  W.  J,  E.  CRANE.  Fourth 
Edition.  12mo,  cloth .(JO 

GAS   FITTING: 

A  Practical  Handbook.     By  JOHN  BLACK.     Revised  Edition      With 

130  Illustrations.     12mo,  cloth $1.00 

"  It  is  written  in  a  simple ,  practical  style,  and  we  heartily  recommend  it." 
— Plumber  and  Decorator. 

TEA   MACHINERY    AND   TEA    FACTORIES. 

A  Descriptive  Treatise  on  the  Mechanical  Appliances  required  in  the 
Cultivation  of  the  Tea  Plant  and  the  Preparation  of  Tea  for  the  Market. 
By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.  Medium  8vo,  468  pp.  With 
218  Illustrations $10.00 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS. 

MECHANICAL  CULTIVATION  OR  TILLAGE  OF  THE  SOIL. — PLUCKING  OR 
GATHERING  THE  LEAF. — TEA  FACTORIES. — THE  DRESSING,  MANUFACTURE, 
OR  PREPARATION  OF  TEA  BY  MECHANICAL  MEANS. — ARTIFICIAL  WITHER- 
ING OF  THE  LEAF. — MACHINES  FOR  ROLLING  OR  CURLING  THE  LEAF. — FER- 
MENTING PROCESS. — MACHINES  FOR  THE  AUTOMATIC  DRYING  OR  FIRING 

OF  THE  LEAF. MACHINES  FOR  NON-AUTOMATIC  DRYING  OR  FIRING  OF  THE 

LEAF. — DRYING  OR  FIRING  MACHINES. — BREAKING  OR  CUTTING,  AND  SORT- 
ING MACHINES. — PACKING  THE  TEA.— MEANS  OF  TRANSPORT  ON  TEA  PLAN- 
TATIONS.— MISCELLANEOUS  MACHINERY  AND  APPARATUS. — FINAL  TREAT- 
MENT OF  THE  TEA. — TABLES  AND  MEMORANDA. 

FLOUR   MANUFACTURE. 

A  Treatise  on  Milling  Science  and  Practice,  By  FRIEDRICH  KICK, 
Imperial  Regierungsrath,  Professor  of  Mechanical  Technology  in  the 
Imperial  German  Polytechnic  Institute,  Prague.  Translated  from  the 
Second  Enlarged  and  Revised  Edition.  By  H.  H.  P.  POWLES,  A.M. 
Inst.C.E.  400  pp.,  with  28  Folding  Plates,  and  167  Woodcuts.  Royal 
8vo,  cloth.. $10.00 

ORNAMENTAL   CONFECTIONERY. 

A  Guide  for  Bakers,  Confectioners  and  Pastrycooks;  including  a 
variety  of  Modern  Recipes,  and  Remarks  on  Decorative  and  Coloured 
Work.  With  129  Original  Designs.  By  ROBERT  WELLS.  12mo,  cloth, 

$2.00 

BREAD    &    BISCUIT    BAKER'S    &    SUGAR=BOILER'S 

ASSISTANT. 

Including  a  large  variety  of  Modern  Recipes.  With  Remarks  on  the 
Art  of  Bread-making.  By  ROBERT  WELLS.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo, 
cloth .50 

PASTRYCOOK   &   CONFECTIONER'S   GUIDE. 

For  Hotels,  Restaurants,  and  the  Trade  in  general,  adapted  also  for 
Family  Use.  By  R.  WELLS,  Author  of  ' '  The  Bread  and  Biscuit  Baker." 

,40 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  USEFUL  ARTS.  47 

MODERN    FLOUR   CONFECTIONER. 

Containing  a  large  Collection  of  Recipes  for  Cheap  Cakes,  Biscuits,  &c. 
With  remarks  on  the  Ingredients  Used  in  their  Manufacture.  By  R. 
WELLS 40 

SAVOURIES   AND    SWEETS 

Suitable  for  Luncheons  and  Dinners.  By  Miss  M.  L.  ALLEN  (Mrs.  A. 
MACAIRE),  Author  of  "  Breakfast  Dishes, "&c.  Thirtieth  Edition.  F'cap 
8vo,  sewed .40 

BREAKFAST   DISHES 

For  Every  Morning  of  Three  Months.  By  Miss  ALLEN  (Mrs.  A. 
MACAIRE),  Author  of  "Savouries  and  Sweets,"  &c.  Twenty-second 
Edition.  F'cap  8vo,  sewed .40 

MOTOR  CARS  OR  POWER  CARRIAGES  FOR  COMMON 
ROADS. 

By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLER,  A.M.Inst.C.E.     12mo,  cloth $1.80 

FRENCH    POLISHING   AND    ENAMELLING. 

A  Practical  Book  of  Instruction,  including  numerous  Recipes  from  mak- 
ing Polishes,  Varnishes,  Glaze  Lacquers,  Revivers,  &c.  By  R.  BIT- 
MEAD.  12mo,  cloth .60 

CEMENTS,    PASTES,   GLUES,    AND   GUMS. 

A  Guide  to  the  Manufacture  and  Application  of  Agglutinants  for 
Workshop,  Laboratory,  or  Office  Use.  With  900  Recipes  and  Formulae. 
By  H.  C.  STANDAGE.  Crown  8vo,  cloth .80 

PRACTICAL   ORGAN   BUILDING. 

By  W.  E.  DICKSON,  M.A.,  Precentor  of  Ely  Cathedral.  Second  Edition, 
Revised.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

COACH-BUILDING: 

A  Practical  Treatise,  Historical  and  Descriptive.  By.  J.  W.  BURGESS. 
12mo,  cloth $1.OO 

SEWING   MACHINERY. 

Construction,  History,  Adjusting,  &c.  By  J.  W.  URQUHART.  12mo, 
cloth .80 

WOOD    ENGRAVING: 

A  Practical  and  Easy  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Art.  By  W.  N. 
BROWN.  12mo,  cloth .60 

LAUNDRY   MANAGEMENT. 

A  Handbook  for  Use  in  Private  and  Public  Laundries.     12mo,  cloth 

.80 
CONSTRUCTION   OF   DOOR   LOCKS. 

From  the  Papers  of  A.  C.  HOBBS.  Edited  by  CHARLES  TOMLINSON, 
F.R.S.  With  a  Note  upon  IRON  SAFES  by  ROBERT  MALLET.  12mo, 
doth $1.00 


48        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  fir-  SON' $  CATALOGUE. 
HANDYBOOKS  FOR   HANDICRAFTS. 

BY  PAUL  N.  HASLUCK, 

Author  of  "Lathe  Work,"  &c.  12mo,  144  pp.,  price  50c.  each. 
frW°  These  HANDY  BOOKS  have  been  written  to  supply  information  for  WORK- 
MEN, STUDENTS,  and  AMATEURS  in  the  several  Handicrafts,  on  the  actual 
PRACTICE  of  the  WORKSHOP,  and  are  intended  to  convey  in  plain  language 
TECHNICAL  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  several  CRAFTS.  In  describing  the  process's 
employed,  and  the  manipulation  of  material,  workshop  terms  are  used;  work- 
shop practice  is  fully  explained;  and  the  text  is  freely  illustrated  with  drawings 
of  modern  tools,  appliances,  and  processes. 


METAL  TURNER'S  HANDYBOOK. 

A  Practical  Manual  for  Workers  at  the  Foot-Lathe.  With  100  Illus- 
trations   .50 

WOOD    TURNER'S    HANDYBOOK. 

A  Practical  Manual  for  Workers  at  the  Lathe.  With  over  100  Illus- 
trations   .50 

WATCH    JOBBER'S   HANDYBOOK. 

A  Practical  Manual  on  Cleaning,  Repairing,  and  Adjusting.  With 
upwards  of  100  Illustrations .50 

PATTERN    MAKER'S   HANDYBOOK. 

A  Practical  Manual  on  the  Construction  of  Patterns  for  Founders. 
With  upwards  of  100  Illustrations .50 

MECHANIC'S   WORKSHOP   HANDYBOOK. 

A  Practical  Manual  on  Mechanical  Manipulation,  embracing  Informa- 
tion on  various  Handicraft  Processes.  With  Useful  Notes  and  Mis- 
cellaneous Memoranda.  Comprising  about  200  Subjects .50 

MODEL    ENGINEER'S   HANDYBOOK. 

A  Practical  Manual  on  the  Construction  of  Model  Steam  Engines. 
With  upwards  of  100  Illustrations .50 

CLOCK   JOBBER'S   HANDYBOOK. 

A  Practical  Manual  on  Cleaning,  Repairing,  and  Adjusting.  With 
upwards  of  100  Illustrations .50 

CABINET   WORKER'S   HANDYBOOK. 

A  Practical  Manual  on  the  Tools,  Materials,  Appliances,  and  Processes 
employed  in  Cabinet  Work.  With  upwards  of  100  Illustrations.  .50 

"Mr.  Hasluck's  thorough-going  little  Handybook  is  amongst  the  most 
practical  guides  we  have  seen  for  beginners  in  cabinet-work." — Saturday 
Review. 

WOODWORKER'S   HANDYBOOK. 

Embracing  Information  on  the  Tools,  Materials,  Appliances,  and 
Processes  Employed  in  Woodworking.  With  104  illustrations.  .50 


COMMERCE,  COUNTING-HOUSE  WORK,  &c.         49 


COMMERCE,    COUNTING-HOUSE    WORK, 
TABLES,   ETC. 


LESSONS    IN   COMMERCE. 

By  Professor  R.  GAMBARO,  of  the  Royal  High  Commercial  School  at 
Genoa.  Edited  and  Revised  by  JAMES  GAULT,  Professor  of  Commerce 
and  Commercial  Law  in  King's  College,  London.  Fifth  Edition. 
12mo,  cloth $1.40 


THE   FOREIGN   COMMERCIAL  CORRESPONDENT. 

Being  Aids  to  Commercial  Correspondence  in  Five  Languages — English, 
French,  German,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  By  CONRAD  E.  BAKER.  Third 
Edition,  Carefully  Revised  Throughout.  12mo,  cloth $1.80 


FACTORY  ACCOUNTS:  their  PRINCIPLES  &  PRACTICE. 

A  Handbook  for  Accountants  and  Manufacturers,  with  Appendices  on 
the  Nomenclature  of  Machine  Details;  the  Income  Tax  Acts;  the 
Rating  of  Factories ;  Fire  and  Boiler  Insurance ;  the  Factory  and  Work- 
shop Acts,  &c.,  including  also  a  Glossary  of  Terms  and  a  large  number 
of  Specimen  Rulings.  By  EMILE  GARCKE  and  J.  M.  FELLS.  Fifth 
Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Demy  8vo,  cloth $3.00 


MODERN   METROLOGY. 

A  Manual  of  the  Metrical  Units  and  Systems  of  the  present  Century. 
With  an  Appendix  containing  a  proposed  English  System.  By 
Lowis  D'A.  JACKSON,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Author  of  "Aid  to  Survey  Prac- 
tice," &c.  8vo,  cloth $5.00 


SERIES   OF   METRIC   TABLES. 

In  which  the  British  Standard  Measures  and  Weights  are  compared 
with  those  of  the  Metric  System  at  present  in  Use  on  the  Continent. 
By  C.  H.  DOWLING,  C.E.  SVQ,  cloth $4.00 


IRON-PLATE   WEIGHT   TABLES. 

For  Iron  Shipbuilders,  Engineers,  and  Iron  Merchants  Containing  the 
Calculated  Weights  of  upwards  of  150,000  different  sizes  of  Iron  Plates 
from  1  foot  by  6  in.  by  i  in.  to  10  feet  by  5  feet  by  1  in.  Worked  out 
on  the  Basis  of  40  Ibs.  to  the  square  foot  of  Iron  of  1  inch  in  thickness. 
By  H.  BURLJNSON  and  W.  H,  SJMPSQN,  4to,  half-bound. . .  .$10.00 


50        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  6-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 

AGRICULTURE,   FARMING, 
GARDENING,   ETC. 


THE    COMPLETE    GRAZIER    AND     FARMER'S    AND 

CATTLE   BREEDER'S  ASSISTANT. 

A  Compendium  of  Husbandry.  Originally  Written  by  WILLIAM 
YOUATT.  Fourteenth  Edition,  entirely  Re-written,  considerably  En- 
larged, and  brought  up  to  Present  Requirements,  by  WILLIAM  FREAM, 
LL.D.,  Assistant  Commissioner,  Royal  Commission  on  Agriculture, 
Author  of  "The  Elements  of  Agriculture,"  &c.  Royal,  8vo,  1,100  pp., 
450  Illustrations,  handsomely  bound $12.00 

STOCK:   CATTLE,    SHEEP,    AND    HORSES. 

Vol.  III.— OUTLINES  OF  MODERN  FARMING.  By  R.  SCOTT  BURN. 
Woodcuts.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

SHEEP: 

The  History,  Structure,  Economy,  and  Diseases  of.  By  W.  C.  SPOONER. 
Fifth  Edition,  with  Engravings,  including  Specimens  of  New  and 
Improved  Breeds.  12mo,  cloth $1.40 

MEAT   PRODUCTION: 

A  Manual  for  Producers,  Distributors,  and  Consumers  of  Butchers' 
Meat.  By  JOHN  EWART.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

MILK,  CHEESE,  AND  BUTTER. 

A  Practical  Handbook  on  their  Properties  and  the  Processes  of  their 
Production.  Including  a  Chapter  on  Cream  and  the  Methods  of  its 
Separation  from  Milk.  By  JOHN  OLIVER,  late  Principal  of  the  Western 
Dairy  Institute,  Berkeley.  With  Coloured  Plates  and  200  Illustra- 
tions. 12mo,  cloth $3.00 

BRITISH    DAIRYING. 

A  Handy  Volume  on  the  Work  of  the  Dairy-Farm.  For  the  Use  of 
Technical  Instruction  Classes,  Students  in  Agricultural  Colleges  and 
the  Working  Dairy-Farmer.  By  Prof.  J.  P.  SHELDON.  With  Illus- 
trations. Second  Edition,  Revised.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

DAIRY,    PIGS,    AND    POULTRY. 

Vol.  IV.  OUTLINES  OF  MODERN  FARMING.  By  R.  SCOTT 
BURN.  Woodcuts.  12mo,  cloth .80 

THE    ELEMENTS   OF   AGRICULTURAL   GEOLOGY. 

A  Scientific  Aid  to  Practical  Farming.  By  PRIMROSE  MCCONNELL. 
Author  of  "Note-book  of  Agricultural  Facts  and  Figures."  8vo,  cloth, 

$7.50 
SOILS,    MANURES,    AND   CROPS. 

Vol.  I.— OUTLINES  OF  MODERN  FARMING.  By  R.  SCOTT  BURN. 
Woodcuts.  12mo,  cloth .80 

FERTILISERS   AND    FEEDING    STUFFS. 

Their  Properties  and  Uses.  A  Handbook  for  the  Practical  Farmer. 
By  BERNARD  DYER,  D.Sc.  (Lond.)  With  the  Text  of  the  Fertilisers 
and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act  of  1893, -The  Regulations  and  Forms  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture,  and  Notes  on  the  Act  by  A.  J.  DAVID,  B.A., 
LL.M.  Fourth  Edition,  Revised.  12mo,  cloth .40 

THE     ROTHAMSTED     EXPERIMENTS     AND     THEIR 

PRACTICAL  LESSONS   FOR   FARMERS. 

Part  I.     STOCK.     Part  II.  CROPS.     By  C.  J.  R.  TIPPER.     12mo,  cloth 

$1.40 


AGRICULTURE,  FARMING,  GARDENING,  &c.   51 
SYSTEMATIC   SMALL   FARMING. 

Or,  The  Lessons  of  My  Farm.  Being  an  Introduction  to  Modern  Farm 
Practice  for  Small  Farmers.  By  R.  SCOTT  BURN,  Author  of  "Outlines 
of  Modern  Farming,"  &c.  12mo,  cloth  ....................  $2.40 

THE    FIELDS   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN. 

A  Text-Book  of  Agriculture.  Adapted  to  the  Syllabus  of  the  Science 
and  Art  Department.  For  Elementary  and  Advanced  Students.  By 
HUGH  CLEMENTS  (Board  of  Trade).  Second  Edition,  Revised,  with 
Additions.  18mo,  cloth  ..................................  <$J  .00 

OUTLINES   OF   MODERN    FARMING. 


age,    Irrigation, 
Edition.     In  One  Vol.,   1,250  pp.,  half-bound,  profusely  Illustrated. 

$4.80 
FARM  ENGINEERING,  The  COMPLETE  TEXT-BOOK  of. 

Comprising  Draining  and  Embanking;  Irrigation  and  Water  Supply; 
Farm  Roads,  Fences  and  Gates;  Farm  Buildings;  Barn  Implements 
and  Machines;  Field  Implements  and  Machines;  Agricultural  Survey- 
ing, &c.  By  Professor  JOHN  SCOTT.  1,150  pp.,  half-bound,  with  over 
600  Illustrations  .........................................  $4.80 

DRAINING    AND    EMBANKING. 

A  Practical  Treatise.  By  JOHN  SCOTT,  late  Professor  of  Agriculture 
and  Rural  Economy  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  College,  Cirencester. 
With  68  Illustrations.  12mo,  cloth  .........................  .60 

"A  valuable  handbook  to  the  engineer  as  well  as  to  the  surveyor."  —  Land. 

IRRIGATION   AND   WATER   SUPPLY: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Water  Meadows,  Sewage  Irrigation,  Warping, 
&c.;  on  the  Construction  of  Wells,  Ponds,  and  Reservoirs,  &c.  By 
Professor  J.  SCOTT.  12mo,  cloth  ...........................  ,60 

FARM  ROADS,  FENCES,  AND  GATES: 

A  Practical  Treatise  Pon  the  Roads,  Tramways,  and  Waterways  of  the 
Farm;  the  Principles  of  Enclosures;  and  on  Fences,  Gates,  and  Stiles. 
By  Professor  JOHN  SCOTT.  12mo,  cloth  .....................  .60 

BARN    IMPLEMENTS   AND    MACHINES: 

Treating  of  the  Application  of  Power  to  the  Operations  of  Agriculture 
and  of  the  various  Machines  used  in  the  Threshing-barn,  in  the  Stock- 
yard, Dairy,  &c.  By  Professor  JOHN  SCOTT.  With  123  Illustrations. 
12mo,  cloth  .............................................  .80 

FIELD    IMPLEMENTS   AND    MACHINES: 

With  Principles  and  Details  of  Construction  and  Points  of  Excellence, 
their  Management,  &c.  By  Professor  JOHN  SCOTT.  With  138  Illus- 
trations. 12mo,  cloth  ....................................  .80 

AGRICULTURAL   SURVEYING. 

A  Treatise  on  Land  Surveying,  Levelling,  and  Setting-out  ;  with  Direc- 
tions for  Valuing  and  Reporting  on  Farms  and  Estates.  By  Professor 
J.SCOTT.  12mo,  cloth  .....................  .  ..............  .60 

OUTLINES   OF   FARM    MANAGEMENT. 

Treating  of  the  General  Work  of  the  Farm;  Stock;  Contract  Work, 
Labour,  &c.  By  R.  SCOTT  BURN.  12mo,  cloth  ..............  $1.OO 

OUTLINES  OF   LANDED   ESTATES   MANAGEMENT. 

Treating  of  the  Varieties  of  Lands,  Methods  of  Farming,  the  Setting-out 
of  Farms,  &c.;  Roads,  Fences,  Gates,  Irrigation,  Drainage,  &c.  By 
R.  S.  BURN.  12mo,  cloth  ............  .....................  $1.00 


52        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  6*  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
FARMING    AND    FARMING    ECONOMY. 

Historical  and  Practical.  Vol.  II— OUTLINES  OF  MODERN 
FARMING.  By  R.  SCOTT  BURN.  12mo,  cloth $1.20 

UTILIZATION   OF   SEWAGE,    IRRIGATION,    &c. 

Vol.  V.— OUTLINES  OF  MODERN  FARMING.  By  R.  SCOTT  BURN. 
Woodcuts.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

NOTE-BOOK  OF  AGRICULTURAL  FACTS  &  FIGURES 

FOR   FARMERS  AND   FARM   STUDENTS. 

By  PRIMROSE  MCDONNELL,  B.Sc.,  Fellow  of  the  Highland  and  Agri- 
cultural Society,  Author  of  "Elements  of  Farming."  Seventh  Edition, 
Re-written,  Revised,  and  greatly  Enlarged.  Fcap.  8vo,  480  pp., 
leather,  gilt  edges [Just  Published.  $3.00 

TABLES  and  MEMORANDA  for  FARMERS,  GRAZIERS, 

AGRICULTURAL     STUDENTS,     SURVEYORS,     LAND     AGENTS, 
AUCTIONEERS,   &c. 

With  a  New  System  of  Farm  Book-keeping.  By  SIDNEY  FRANCIS. 
Fifth  Edition.  272  pp.,  waistcoat-pocket  size,  limp  leather.  .  .  .60 

THE   HAY   AND   STRAW   MEASURER: 

New  Tables  for  the  Use  of  Auctioneers,  Valuers,  Farmers,  Hay  and 
f  Straw  Dealers,  &c.,  forming  a  complete  Calculator  and  Ready  Reck- 
oner.    By  JOHN  STEELE.     12mo,  cloth .80 

READY  RECKONER  FOR  ADMEASUREMENT  OF  LAND. 

By  A.  ARM  AN.  Revised  and  extended  by  C.  NORRIS,  Surveyor.  Fifth 
Edition.  12mo,  cloth .80 

THE   HORTICULTURAL  NOTE-BOOK. 

A  Manual  of  Practical  Rules,  Data,  and  Tables,  for  the  use  of  Students, 
Gardeners,  Nurserymen,  and  others  interested  in  Flower,  Fruit,  and 
Vegetable  Culture,  or  in  the  Laying-out  and  Management  of  Gardens. 
By  J.  C.  NewsHAM,  F.R.H.S.,  Headmaster  of  the  Hampshire  County 
Council  Horticultural  School.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  Fcap. 
8vo,  cloth [Just  Published.  $3.00 

MARKET   AND    KITCHEN   GARDENING. 

By  C.  W.  SHAW,  late  Editor  of  "Gardening  Illustrated."     Crown  8vo, 

$1.40 
A   PLAIN   GUIDE  TO   GOOD   GARDENING; 

Or,  How  to  Grow  Vegetables,  Fruits,  and  Flowers.  By  S.  WOOD. 
Fourth  Edition,  with  considerable  Additions,  and  numerous  Illustra- 
tions. 12mo,  cloth $1.40 

THE   FORCING   GARDEN; 

.  Or,  How  to  Grow  Early  Fruits,  Flowers  and  Vegetables.  With  Plans 
and  Estimates  for  Building  Glasshouses,  Pits  and  Frames.  With 
Illustrations.  By  SAMUEL  WOOD.  12mo,  cloth $1.40 

KITCHEN   GARDENING   MADE    EASY. 

Showing  the  best  means  of  Cultivating  every  known  Vegetable  and 
Herb,  <fec.,  with  directions  for  management  all  the  year  round.  By 
GEO.  M.  F.  GLENNY.  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth .60 

COTTAGE   GARDENING; 

Or,  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Vegetables  for  Small  Gardens.  By  E.  HOBDAY. 
12mo,  cloth .60 

GARDEN    RECEIPTS. 

Edited  by  CHARLES  W.  QUIN.     Fourth  Edition.     12mo,  cloth,       .60 

MULTUM-IN-PARVO   GARDENING; 

Or,  How  to  Make  One  Acre  of  Land  produce  $3007  a  year,  by  the 
Cultivation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables;  also,  How  to  Grow  Flowers  in 
Three  Glass  Houses,  so  as  to  realise  $853.60  per  annum  clear  Profit. 
By  SAMUEL  WOOD,  Author  of  "Good  Gardening,"  &c.  Sixth  Edition. 
12mo,  paper .50 


AGRICULTURE,  FARMING,  GARDENING,  &c.       53 
THE  LADIES'  MULTUM-IN-PARVO  FLOWER  GARDEN. 

And  Amateur's  Complete  Guide.     By  S.  WOOD.     12mo,  cloth,  $1.40 

FRUIT   TREES, 

The  Scientific  and  Profitable  Culture  of.  From  the  French  of  M.  Du 
BREUIL.  Fifth  Edition,  carefully  Revised  by  GEORGE  GLENNY.  With 
187  Woodcuts.  12mo,  cloth $1.40 

ART   OF   GRAFTING   AND   BUDDING. 

By  CHARLES  BALTET.     With  Illustrations.     12mo,  cloth $1.00 

TREE   PRUNER: 

Being  a  Practical  Manual  on  the  Pruning  of  Fruit  Trees,  including  also 
their  Training  and  Renovation,  also  treating  of  the  Pruning  of  Shrubs, 
Climbers,  and  Flowering  Plants.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  By 
SAMUEL,  WOOD,  Author  of  "Good  Gardening,"  &c.  12mo,  cloth.  .(JO 

TREE  PLANTER  AND  PLANT  PROPAGATOR: 

With  numerous  Illustrations  of  Grafting,  Layering,  Budding,  Imple- 
ments, Houses,  Pits,  &c.  By  S.  WOOD.  12mo,  cloth .80 

"  Sound  in  its  teaching  and  very  comprehensive  in  its  aim.    It  is  a  good 
book." — Gardeners'  Magazine. 

***  The  above  Two  Vols.  in  One,  handsomely  half -bound,  entitled  "THE 
TREE  PLANTER,  PROPAGATOR  AND  PRUNER."  By  SAMUEL  WOOD. 

$1.40 

THE   CULTIVATION   AND   PREPARATION    OF    PARA 

RUBBER. 

By  W.  H.  JOHNSON,  F.L.S.,  F.R.H.S.     8vo,  cloth Net  $3.00 

For  Summary  of  Contents,  see  page  43. 

BEES   FOR   PLEASURE   AND   PROFIT. 

A  Guide  to  the  Manipulation  of  Bees,  the  Production  of  Honey,  and  the 
General  Management  of  the  Apiary.  By  G.  GORDON  SAMSON.  With 
numerous  Illustrations.  12mo,  wrapper .40 


MATHEMATICS,   ARITHMETIC,  ETC. 


TREATISE   ON   MATHEMATICS, 

As  applied  to  the  Constructive  Arts.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.E.,  &c. 
Third  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.20 

SLIDE    RULE,    AND   HOW   TO   USE   IT. 

Containing  full,  easy,  and  simple  Instructions  to  perform  all  Business 
Calculations  with  unexampled  rapidity  and  accuracy.  By  CHARLES 
HOARE,  C.E.  With  a  Slide  Rule,  in  tuck  of  cover.  Eighth  Edition. 
12mo $1.00 

MATHEMATICAL   TABLES, 

For  Trigonometrical,  Astronomical,  and  Nautical  Calculations;  to 
which  is  prefixed  a  Treatise  on  Logarithms.  By  H.  LAW,  C.E.  To- 
gether with  a  Series  of  Tables  for  Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy. 
By  Professor  J.  R.  YOUNG.  New  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.60 

LOGARITHMS. 

With  Mathematical  Tables  for  Trigonometrical,  Astronomical,  and 
Nautical  Calculations.  By  HENRY  LAW,  C.E.  Revised  Edition. 
(Forming  part  of  the  preceding  work.)  12mo,  cloth $1.20 


54        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &>  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
EUCLID, 

The  Elements  of;  with  many  Additional  Propositions  and  Explanatory 
Notes;  to  which  is  prefixed  an  Introductory  Essay  on  Logic.  By 

HENRY  LAW,  C.E.     12mo,  cloth $1.OO 

***  Sold  also  separately,  viz.: — 

EUCLID.     The  First  Three  Books.     By  HENRY  LAW,  C.E.     Crown  8vo, 
cloth .60 

EUCLID.     Books  4,  5,  6,  11,  12.     By  HENRY  LAW,  C.E.     Crown  8vo, 
cloth .60 

THEORY  OF  COMPOUND  INTEREST  AND  ANNUITIES, 

With  Tables  of  Logarithms  for  the  more  Difficult  Computations  of 
Interest,  Discount,  Annuities,  &c.,  in  all  their  Applications  and  Uses 
for  Mercantile  and  State  Purposes.  By  FEDOR  THOMAN,  of  the  Societe 
Credit  Mobilier,  Paris.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $1.60 

ARITHMETIC, 

Rudimentary,  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Self-Instruction.  By  JAMES 
HADDON,  M.A.  Revised  by  ABRAHAM  ARMAN.  12mo,  cloth..  .60 

ARITHMETIC, 

A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on:  with  full  Explanations  of  its  Theoretical 
Principles,  and  numerous  Examples  for  Practice.  For  the  use  of 
Schools  and  for  Self-Instruction.  By  J.  R.  YOUNG,  late  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  Belfast  College.  14th  Ed.  12mo,  cloth....  .60 

KEY   TO   THE   ABOVE. 

By  J.  R.  YOUNG.     12mo,  cloth .60 

EQUATIONAL   ARITHMETIC, 

Applied  to  Questions  of  Interest,  Annuities,  Life  Assurance ,  and  General 
Commerce:  with  various  Tables  by  which  all  calculations  may  be 
greatly  facilitated.  By  W.  HIPSLEY.  12mo,  cloth .60 

COMMERCIAL   BOOK=KEEPING. 

With  Commercial  Phrases  and  Forms  in  English,  French,  Italian,  and 
German.  By  JAMES  HADDON,  M.A.,  formerly  Mathematical  Master, 
King's  College  School.  12mo,  cloth .60 

ALGEBRA, 

The  Elements  of.  By  JAMES  HADDON,  M.A.,  formerly  Mathematical 
Master  of  King's  College  School.  With  Appendix,  containing  Mis- 
cellaneous Investigations,  and  a  collection  of  Problems.  12mo,  cloth, 

.80 
KEY  AND  COMPANION  TO  THE  ABOVE. 

An  extensive  repository  of  Solved  Examples  and  Problems  in  Illustra- 
tion of  the  various  Expedients  necessary  in  Algebraical  Operations. 
By  J.  R.  YOUNG.  12mo,  cloth .60 

DESCRIPTIVE   GEOMETRY, 

An  elementary  Treatise  on;  with  a  Theory  of  Shadows  and  of  Per- 
spective extracted  from  the  French  of  G.  MONGE.  To  which  is  added 
a  Description  of  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Isometrical  Projection. 
By  J.  F.  HEATHER,  M.A.  With  14  Plates.  12mo,  cloth .80 

PRACTICAL   PLANE   GEOMETRY: 

Giving  the  Simplest  Modes  of  Constructing  Figures  contained  in  one 
Plane  and  Geometrical  Constructions  of  the  Ground.  By  J  F.  HEATHER, 
M.A.  12mo,  cloth 80 


MATHEMATICS,  ARITHMETIC,  6r>c.  55 

ANALTYICAL   GEOMETRY   AND   CONIC   SECTIONS. 

By  J.  HANN.     Enlarged  by  Professor  J.  R.  YOUNG.     Crown  8vo,  cloth 

.80' 

PLANE   TRIGONOMETRY, 

The  Elements  of.     By  JAMES  HANN,  M.A.     Seventh  Edition.     12mo 

.60 

SPHERICAL   TRIGONOMETRY, 

The  Elements  of.      By  JAMES  HANN.      Revised  by  CHARLES  H.  Dow. 

LINO,  C.E.     12mo,  cloth ^Q 

***  Or  with  "The  Elements  of  Plane  Trigonometry,"  in  One  Vol.     Crown 
8vo,  cloth $1.00 

DIFFERENTIAL   CALCULUS, 

Elements  of  the.     By  W.  S.  B.  WOOLHOUSE.     12mo,  cloth .60 

INTEGRAL   CALCULUS. 

By  HOMERSHAM  Cox,  B.A.     12mo,  cloth .60 

MATHEMATICAL    INSTRUMENTS, 

A  Treatise  on;  Their  Construction,  Adjustment,  Testing,  and  Use  con- 
cisely explained.  By  J.  F.  HEATHER,  M.A.,  of  the  Royal  Military 
Academy,  Woolwich.  Fifteenth  Edition,  Revised  with  Additions,  by 
A.  T.  WALMISLEY,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Fellow  of  the  Surveyors'  Institution. 
Original  Edition  in  One  Vol.,  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth .go 

***  In  ordering  be  careful  to  say  "  Original  Edition,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
Enlarged  Edition  in  Three  Vols  (see  below). 

DRAWING    AND   MEASURING    INSTRUMENTS. 

Including — I.  Instruments  employed  in  Geometrical  and  Mechanical 
Drawing,  and  in  the  Construction,  Copying,  and  Measurement  of  Maps 
and  Plans.  II.  Instruments  used  for  the  purposes  of  Accurate  Measure- 
ment, and  for  Arithmetical  Computations.  By  J.  F.  HEATHER,  M  A 
12mo .60 

OPTICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

Including  (more  especially)  Telescopes,  Microscopes,  and  Apparatus  for 

S-oducing   copies   of   Maps   and    Plans   by   Photography.     By  J.    F. 
BATHER,  M.A.     Illustrated.     12mo,  cloth .60 

SURVEYING    AND   ASTRONOMICAL    INSTRUMENTS. 

Including — I.  Instruments  used  for  Determining  the  Geometrical 
Features  of  a  portion  of  Ground.  II.  Instruments  employed  in 
Astronomical  Observations.  By  J.  F.  HEATHER,  M.A.  Illustrated. 
12mo,  cloth .60 

***  The  above  Three  Volumes  form  an  Enlargement  of  the  Author's  original 
work,  "Mathematical  Instruments,"  price  .80. 

MATHEMATICAL    INSTRUMENTS: 

Their  Construction,  Adjustment,  Testing,  and  Use.  Comprising  Draw- 
ing, Measuring,  Optical,  Surveying,  and  Astronomical  Instruments. 
By  J.  F.  HEATHER,  M.A.  Enlarged  Edition,  for  the  most  part  re- 
written. Three  parts  as  above.  12mo,  cloth $1.80 

STATICS    AND    DYNAMICS, 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of ;  embracing  also  a  clear  development  of 
Hydrostatics,  Hydrodynamics,  and  Central  Forces.  By  T.  BAKER, 
C.E.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth .60 


56        CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  6-  SON'S  CATALOGUE. 
LAW    AND    MISCELLANEOUS. 


PATENTS  for  INVENTIONS,  HOW  to  PROCURE  THEM. 

Compiled  for  the  Use  of  Inventors,  Patentees  and  others.  By  G.  G.  M. 
HARDINGHAM,  Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.,  &c.  Demy  8vo,  cloth,  .(JO 

DICTIONARY   OF    PAINTERS, 

And  Handbook  for  Picture  Amateurs;  being  a  Guide  for  Visitors  to 
Public  and  Private  Picture  Galleries,  and  for  Art  Students  including 
Glossary  of  Terms,  &c.  By  PHILIPPE  DARYL,  B. A.  12mo,  cloth.  $1.00 

DICTIONARY  OF  TERMS  USED   IN   ARCHITECTURE. 

Building  Engineering,  Mining,  Metallurgy,  Archaeology,  the  Fine  Arts, 
&c.  By  JOHN  WEALB.  Sixth  Edition.  Edited  by  ROBT.  HUNT, 
F.R.S.  Numerous  Illustrations,  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY, 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners.     By  C.  TOMLINSON,  F.R.S.     12mo,  cloth, 

.60 
HANDBOOK   OF   FIELD   FORTIFICATION. 

By  Major  W.  W.  KNOLLYS,  F.R.G.S.     12mo,  cloth $1.20 

COMPENDIOUS   CALCULATOR 

(Intuitive  Calculations);  or  Easy  and  Concise  Methods  of  performing  the 
various  Arithmetical  Operations  required  in  Commercial  and  Business 
Transactions ;  together  with  Useful  Tables,  &c.  By  DANIEL  O'GORMAN. 
Twenty-eighth  Edition,  revised,by  C.  NORRIS.  12mo,  cloth..  -$1.00 

MEASURES,     WEIGHTS,     AND     MONEYS     OF     ALL 

NATIONS. 

And  an  Analysis  of  the  Christian,  Hebrew,  and  Mahometan  Calendars. 
By  W.  S.  B.  WOOLHOUSE,  F.R.A.S.  7th  Ed.  12mo,  cloth.  -$1.00 

SPANISH   GRAMMAR. 

In  a  Simple  and  Practical  Form.  With  Exercises.  By  ALFRED  ELWES. 
12mo,  cloth .60 

SPANISH-ENGLISH      AND      ENGLISH-SPANISH      DIC- 
TIONARY. 

Including  a  large  number  of  Technical  Terms  used  in  Mining,  Engineer- 
ing, &c.,  with  the  proper  Accents  and  the  Gender  of  every  Noun.  By 
ALFRED  ELWES.  12mo,  cloth $1.60 

PORTUGUESE   GRAMMAR. 

In  a  Simple  and  Practical  Form.  With  Exercises.  By  ALFRED 
ELWES.  12mo,  cloth .60 

PORTUGUESE-ENGLISH        AND        ENGLISH-PORTU- 
GUESE DICTIONARY. 

Including  a  large  number  of  Technical  Terms  used  in  Mining,  Engineer- 
ing, &c.,  with  the  proper  Accents  and  the  Gender  of  every  Noun.  By 
ALFRED  ELWES.  Fourth  Edition,  revised.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

ANIMAL   PHYSICS, 

Handbook  of.  By  DIONYSITJS  LARDNER,  D.C.L.  With  520  Illustra- 
tions. In  One  Vol.  (732  pages).  12mo,  cloth $3.00 

MUSIC, 

A  Rudimentary  and  Practical  Treatise  on.     By  C.  C.  SPENCER.     12mo, 

$1.00 
PIANOFORTE, 

The  Art  of  Playing  the.  With  Exercises  and  Lessons.  By  C.  C. 
SPENCER.  12mo,  cloth .60 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Acetylene  Gas,  Gibbs,  42 

Acoustics,  Smith,  35 

Aerial  Navigation,  Walker,  n 

—  Tramways,  Tayler,  2 
Agricultural    Geology,    McCon- 

nell,  50 

—  Note  Book,  McConnell,  52 

—  Surveying,  Scott,  51 

Air  Machinery,  Weisbach,  9,  22 
Algebra,  H addon,  54 
Alkali  Trade,  Lomas,  42 
Alphabets,  Delamotte,  39 
Alternating    Current    Machines, 

Sheldon  and  Mason,  29 
Animal  Physics,  Lardner,  56 

—  Physiology,  Lardner,  41 
Arches,  Piers,   &c.,  Bland,  32 
Architect's  Guide,  Rogers,  34 
Architectural    Modelling,    Rich- 
ardson, 34 

Architecture,  Ancient,  34 

—  Civil,  Chambers,  34 

Design,  Garbett,  34 

Grecian,  Aberdeen,  35 

Mechanics  of,  Tarn,  34 

—  Modern,  34 

—  of  Vitruvius,  Gwilt,  35 

—  Orders,  Leeds,  34 

—  Orders  and  Styles,  34 

—  Styles,  Bury,  34 
Arithmetic,  H  addon,  54 

-  Young,  54 
Equational,  Hipsley,  54 


Armature,  Windings,  Arnold,  29 
Artists'  Pigments,  Standage,  43 
Asbestos,  Jones,  27 
Astronomical  Glossary,  Gore,  40 
Astronomy,  Lardner,  41 
Main  and  Lynn,  40 

Barn  Implements,  Scott,  51 

Beams,  Flexure  of,  Guy,  18 

Bees,  Samson,  53 

Blasting,  Burgoyne,  19 

Blowpipe,  ,/fo.y.y,  42 

Boiler  and   Factory   Chimneys, 

Wilson,  4 
Boilers,  Armstrong,  5 

Bauer,  20 

Courtney,  3 

Po/ry,  3 

Horner,  4 

Hutton,  3 

Wilson,  4 

Book-keeping,  Haddon,  54 
Boot  and  Shoe  Making,  Le«0,  44 
Brass  Founding,  Graham,  45 
Bread  and  Biscuit  Baker,  H^//.y, 
46 

Breakfast  Dishes,  Allen,  47 
Brewing   and   Malting,    Wright, 

4i 

Brick  and  Tile  Book,  33 
—  Making,  Dob  son,  32 
Brick-cutting,  Hammond,  32 
Bricklaying,  Hammond,  32 

57 


INDEX  TO  CATALOGUE. 


Brickwork,  Walker,  32 
Bridges,  Iron,  Humber,  16 

Iron,  Pendred,  16 

Oblique,  Buck,  16 

—  Tubular,  Dempsey,  1 7 
Bridges  and  Viaducts,  Campin, 

17 

British  Mining,  Hunt,  25 
Builders'  Measuring,  Beaton,  33 

—  Quantities,  Beaton,  33 
Building,  a  Book  on,  Beckett,  31 

—  Art  of,  Dobson,  31 

—  Construction,  ^4//ew,  31 

—  Cottage,  Allen,  31 

Dwelling   Houses,    Brooks, 

32 

Estates,  Maitland,  31 

Farm,  Scott,  32 

Science  of,  Tarn,  31 

Cabinet-Making,  Bitmead,  37 

Working,  Hasluck,  48 

Calculator,  O' Gorman,  56 
Calculus,  Differential,  Woolhouse, 

55 

Integral,  C0#,  55 

Carpenter's    Guide,    Nicholson, 

37 

Carpentry  and  Joinery,  Tredgold 
and  Tarn,  37 

—  Tredgold,  37 

Cattle,  Sheep,  &c.,  Burn,  50 
Cements,  &c.,  Standage,  47 
Chain  Cables,  Traill,  20 
Chemistry  of  Mining,  Byrom,  26 
Chimneys,  Wilson,  4 
Circular  Work,  Callings,  37 
Civil  Engineering,  Law,  18 
Clock  Jobbing,  Hasluck,  48 
Clocks,     Watches,     and     Bells, 

Beckett,  45 

Coach-Building,  Burgess,  47 
Coal  &  Iron  Industries,  Meade, 
26 

Mining,  Cockin,  26 

Smyth,  26 

Colliery  Manager,  Pamely,  25 
Working,  Bulman  and  Red- 
may  ne,  26 


Colouring,  -FYe/d    &*    Davidson, 

39 
Colours   &    Dye  Wares,  Slater, 

42 

Commerce,  Gambaro,  49 
Commercial        Correspondence, 

Baker,  49 
Compound     Interest,     Thoman, 

54 

Concrete,  Sutcliffe,  33 
Confectioner,  Flour,  Wells,  47 
Confectionery,  W^//.s,  46 
Constructional      Ironwork, 

Campin,  17 
Copper,  Metallurgy  of,  Eissler, 

24 

Cottage  Building,  4//ew,  31 
-  Gardening,  Hobday,  52 
Cotton      Manufacture 


Cranes,  Glynn,  n 
Creation,  Records  of,  Le 


44 


40 


Curves,  Tables  of,  Beazeley,  15 
Cyanide  Process,  Eissler,  23 

Dairying,  British,  Sheldon,  50 
Dairy,  Pigs,  and  Poultry,  Burn, 

5° 

Dangerous  Goods,  Phillips,  42 
Decoration,  Facey,  38 

-  House-Painting,    Graining, 
&c.,  38 

-  Imitation    of    Woods    and 
Marbles,  38 

-  Marble,  Blagrove,  39 
Decorator's  Assistant,  39 
Deep  Level  Mines  of  the  Rand, 

Denny,  22 

Diamond  Drilling,  Denny,  23 
Dictionary       of       Architecture, 

Weale  and  Hunt,  56 

—  Painters,  Daryl,  56 
Direct  Current  Machines,  Sheldon 

and  Mason,  29 
Drainage  of  Lands,  Clark,  14 

-  (Mine),  Michell,  25 
Draining    &  Embanking,  Scott, 


INDEX  TO  CATALOGUE. 


59 


Drawing  Instruments,  Heather, 
55 

—  Rules  on,  Pyne,  34 
Dwelling  Houses,  Brooks,  32 
Dynamic    Electricity,    Atkinson, 

3° 
Dynamo  Construction,  Urquhart, 

29 
How  to  Make,  Crofts,  29 

—  Motor     and     Switchboard 
Circuits,  Bo-wker,  29 

Earthwork,  Graham,  16 

—  Tables,  Broadbent  6°  Cam- 
pin,  1 6 

-  Tables,  Buck,  16 
Earthy  Minerals,  Davies,  24 
Electrical  Calculations,  Atkinson, 

30 

—  Conductors,  Perrine,  29 

—  Engineering,  Alexander,  28 
Sewell,  28 

—  Pocket  Book,  Kempe,  30 

-  Transmission,  Abbott,  28 
Electricity   Applied   to   Mining, 

Lupton,  Parr,  &>  Per  kin,  25,  28 

—  Lardner  and  Foster,  41 

—  Text-Book,  Noad,  30 
Electric  Light  Fitting,  Urquhart, 

3° 

Light,  Knight,  30 

Light,  Urquhart,  30 

—  Lighting,  Swinton,  30 

—  Ship-Lighting,  Urquhart,  30 

—  Telegraph,  Lardner,  41 
Electro-Metallurgy,  Wa#,  45 

Plating,  Urquhart,  45 

Plating,  Watt   and  ^Philip, 

45 

Typing,  Urquhart,  45 

Embroiderer's  Design,  Delamotte, 

39* 

Engine-Driving    Life,  Reynolds, 

6 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Phillips, 

42 

Drawing,  Maxton,  8 

Estimates,  9 

Engineering  Tools,  Homer,  2 


Engineer's  Assistant,  Templeton, 

8 
Companion,  Edwards,  8 

-  Field  Book,  Haskoll,  15 

—  Handbook,  Hutton,  5 

-  Pocket-Book,  Clark,  7 
Reference  Book,  Foley,  3 

—  Turning,  Horner,  2 
Year  Book,  Kempe,  7 

Engineman's  Companion,  Reyn- 
olds, 7 

Euclid,  Law,  54 
Excavating,  Prelini,  16 
Explosives,  Eissler,  42 

—  Nitro,  Sanjord,  42 

Factory    Accounts,    Garcke    & 

Fells,  49 
Farm  Buildings,  5co//,  32 

Engineering,  Scott,  5 1 

Management,  Burn,  5 1 

Roads,  &c.,  Scott,  51 

Farmer's  Tables,  Francis,  52 
Farming  Economy,  Burn,  52 

—  Outlines,  Burn,  5 1 

Small,  Burn,  51 

Fertilisers,   &c.,  Dyer,  50 
Field  Fortification,  Knotty s,  56 

—  Implements,  Sco#,  5 1 
Fields  of  Gt.  Britain,  Clements, 

51 

Fires  &  Fire  Engines,  Young,  1 1 
Flour,  Kick  and  Powles,  46 
Forestry,  Curtis,  36 
Foundations,  &c.,  Dobson,  19 
French  Polishing,  Bitmead,  47 
Fruit  Trees,  Du  Breuil,  53 
Fuel,  Williams  and  Clark,  10 
Fuels,  Phillips,  10 

Garden,  Forcing,  Wood,  52 

— Receipts,  Quin,  52 
Gardening,  Good,  Wood,  52 

—  Ladies',  Wood,  53 

Multum-in-Parvo,      Wood, 

52 
Gas  and  Oil  Engines,  Bale,  J 

—  Engines,  Goodeve,  7 


6o 


INDEX  TO  CATALOGUE. 


Gas  Engineer's    Pocket    Book, 
O'Connor,  42 

-  Fitting,  Black,  47 

Producer    Plants,   Mathot, 

6 

-  Works,  Hughes,  18 
Geology,  Historical,  Tate,  27 
Physical,  Tate,  27 

—  Tate,  27 
Geometry,  Tarn,  17 

—  Analytical,  Hann,  55 

—  Descriptive,  Heather,  54 

-  Technical,  Sprague,  17 

—  of  Compasses,  Byrne,  17 

—  Plane,  Heather,  54 
Girders  (Iron),  Buck,  17 

Glass     Staining,     Gessert     and 

Fromberg,  40 
Gold  Assaying,  Phillips,  23 

and  Silver,  Merrill,  23 

Metallurgy  of,  Eissler,  23 

Prospecting,  Rankin,  23 

Goldsmith's  Handbook,  Gee,   45 

—  and  Silversmith,  Gee,  46 
Grafting    and    Budding,  Baltet, 

53 

Granites,  Harris,  27 
Grazier,  Complete,  Fream,  50 

Hall    Marking    Jewellery,    Gee, 

45 
Handrailing,  Callings,  37 

Goldthorp,  37 

Hay   &  Straw  Measurer,  Steele, 

52 

Health  Officer,   Willoughby,  35 
Heat  (Expansion  by),  Keily,  18 
Heat,  Lardner  and  Loewy,  41 
Heating  by  Hot  Water,   /owes, 

Hints  to  Architects,   Wightwick 

andGuillaume,  34 
Hoisting  Machinery,   Horner,  2 
Hoisting      &     Conveying     Ma- 
chinery, Zimmer,  2 
Horology,  Saunier,  44 
Horticulture,  Neivsham,  52 
House  Decoration,  Facey,  38 
Painting,  Davidson,  39 


Hydraulic  Manual,  Jackson,  13 
Engineering,  Marks,  13 


—  Tables,  Neville,  13 
Hydrostatics,  Lardner,  41 

Illumination,  Delamotte,  39 
India  Rubber,  Johnson,  43,  53 
Inflammable  Gas,  Clowes,  26 
Iron  and  Steel,  Hoare,  8 
Iron,  Metallurgy  of,  Bauerman, 

25 

-  Ores,  Kendall,  25 

—  Plate       Weight       Tables, 
Burlinson  and  Simpson,  49 

Irrigation,  Mawson,  n 

-  and  Water    Supply, 


Jeweller's  Assistant,  Gee,  45 
Joints  (Builders'),  Christy,  37 

Key  to  Haddon's  Algebra,  54 

-  to  Young's  Arithmetic,  54 
Kitchen  Gardening,  Glenny,  52 

Land,  Ready  Reckoner,  Arman, 

52 

-  (Reclamation    of),    Beaze- 
ley,  12 

Landed  Estates,  Burn,  51 
Lathe  Work,  Hasluck,  9 
Laundry,  Management,  47 
Lead     (Argentiferous),    Eissler, 

24 

Leather  Manufacture,  Watt,  44 
Letter  Painting,  Badenoch,  39 
Levelling,  Simms,  15 
Light,  Tarw,  35 
Light  Railways,  Calthrop,  n 
Lightning    Conductors,  Hedges, 

32 

Limes,  Cements,  Burnett,  33 
Locks,  Tomlinson,  47 
Locomotive  Engine,  Stretton,  6 

-  Engine,  Weatherburn,  6 

-  Engine  Driving,  Reynolds,  6 

-  Engineer,  Reynolds,  6 

-  Engines,  Dempsey,  6 


INDEX  TO  CATALOGUE. 


61 


Logarithms,  Law,  53 

Machine  Shop  Tools,  2 
Machinery,  Details,  Campin,  9 
Marble     Decoration,     Blagrove, 

39 

Marine     Engineering,     Brewer, 
20 

—  Engineer,  Wannan,  20 
Engineer's    Pocket    Book, 

Wannan,  20 

Marine     Engines      &     Boilers, 
Baiter,  Donkin  and  Robertson, 

J9 

Engines,  Murray,  20 

Market  Gardening,  Shaw,  52 
Masonry,  Purchase,  32 
and    Stone-Cutting,    Dob- 
son,  32 

Dams,  Courtney,  13 

Masting  and  Rigging,  Kipping, 
21 
Materials,  Campin,  18 

—  (Strength  of),  Barlow,  18 

Handling  of,  Zimmer,  i 

Mathematical    Insts.,    Heather, 

Heather  6°  Walmisley,  55 

Tables,   Law  and   Young, 

22,  53 

Mathematics,  Campin,  53 
Measures,  Weights,    &c.,  Wool- 
house,  56 

Measuring      Builders'       Work, 
Dobson  and  Tarn,  33 

—  Timber,  &c.,  H or ton,  33 
Meat  Production,  Ewart,  50 
Mechanical    Dentistry,  Hunter, 

45 

—  Engineering,  Campin,  9 

—  Handling      of      Material, 
Zimmer,  i 

-  Terms,  Lockwood,  8 
Mechanics,  Hughes,  9 
Lardner  and  Loewy,  40 

—  Tomlinson,  10 

of   Air   Machinery,    W els- 
bach,  9,  22 
(Tables  for),  Smith,  8 


Mechanics'     Companion,    Tem- 
pleton  and  Hutton,  8 

Workshop,  Hasluck,  48 

Mechanism,  Baker,  10 
Mensuration  &  Gauging,  Mant, 

4i 
and      Measuring,      Baker, 

!7 

Metal  Turning,  Hasluck,  48 
Metalliferous  Minerals,  Davies, 

24 
Mining  Machinery,  Davies, 

22 

Metric  Tables,  Dowling,  49 
Metrology,  Jackson,  49 
Microscope,  F0w  Heurck,  40 
Milk,  Cheese,  &c.,  O/wer,  50 
Milling  Machines,  Homer,  2 
Mine  Drainage,  Michell,  25 
Mines  of  the  Rand,  Denny,  22 
Mineral  Surveyor,  Lintern,  27 
Mineralogy,  Ramsay,  27 
Miners'    Handbook,    Milne,    25 

Pocket  Book,  Power,  24 

Mining,  British,  Hunt,  24 
Calculations,   O' Donahue, 

26 

Chemistry  of,  Byrom,  26 

Students,  Notes  for,  Meri- 

vale,  26 

Tools,  Morgans,  27 

and     Quarrying,     Collins, 

27 

Model  Engineer,  Hasluck,  48 
Mollusca,  Woodward,  40 
Motor  Cars,  Tayler,  n,  47 

Vehicles,  Tayler,  1 1 

Museum    of    Science    and    Art, 

Lardner,  41 
Music,  Spencer,  56 

Natural  Philosophy,  Tomlinson, 

56 
for  Schools,  Lardner, 

41 

Naval  Architect's  Pocket  Book, 
Mackrow,  20 

Architecture,  Peake,  2 1 

Navigation,  Young,  22 


62 


INDEX  TO  CATALOGUE. 


Navigation,      Greenwood      and 
Rosser,  21 

—  Practical,  21 

Oil  Fields  of  Russia,  Thompson, 
22,  41 

Oils,  Analysis  of,  Wright,  41 
Optical    Instruments,    Heather, 

55 

Optics,  Lardner  &>  Harding,  41 
Organ  Building,  Dickson,  47 

Packing  Case  Tables,  Richard- 
son, 38 

Painting,  Qullick  &  Timbs,  40 
Paper,  Parkinson,  43 

—  Making,  Clapperton,  43 

-  Watt,  43 

Pastrycook's  Guide,  Wells,  46 
Patents,  Hardingham,  56 
Pattern  Making,  Hasluck,  48 

Homer,  8 

Perspective,  Ferguson,  33 

—  Pyne,  34 

Pianoforte,  Spencer,  56 
Pioneer     Engineering,     Dobson, 

15 

Plastering,  Kemp,  33 
Plating    &   Boilermaking,  .Hor- 

wer,  4 

Plumbing,  Buchan,  33 
Pneumatics,  Tomlinson,  19 
Pocketbook,    Agriculturist's, 

Francis,  55 

McConnell,  52 

• Builder's,  Beaton,  33 

—  Electrical,  Kempe,  30 
Engineer's,  Clark,  7 

—  Edwards,  8 

Fletcher,  8 

Hasluck,  9 

Kempe,  7 

Smith,  8 

Templeton,  8 

Engineman's,  Reynolds,  6 

Gas  Engineer's,  O'Connor, 

—  Health  Officer's,  Willoughby, 
35 


Pocketbook,  Marine  Engineer's, 

Mackrow,  20 
--  J^awwaw,  20 

—  of          Mensuration       and 

Measuring,  Mant,  41 

—  Miner's,  Milne,  25 

—  Power,  24 

—  Mining      Prospecto  r's, 
Anderson,  24 

--  Merritt,  24 
--  Rankin,  23 

-  of   Refrigeration,      Tayler^ 

10 
Portable    Engine,    Wansbrough, 

Portland     Cement,     Faija    and 

Butler,  33 

Portuguese    Dictionary,    Elwes, 
56 

-  Grammar,  Elwes,  56 
Producer-Gas  Plants,  Matlwt,  6 
Prospector's  Handbook,  Ander- 

son, 24 
Pumps  and  Pumping,  J3a/£,  10 

Quantities  (Builders'),  Beaton,  33 

Railway  Brakes,  Reynolds,  6 

—  Working,  Stretton,  19 
Reclamation  of  Land,  Beazeley, 


Refrigerating   Machinery, 

ler,  ii 

Refrigeration,  Tayler,  10 
-  (Pocket  Book),  Ta;y/er,  n 
River  Bars,  Mann,  14 
Roads  and  Streets,  Law,  16 
Roof  Carpentry,  Callings,  37 
Roofs,    Construction    of,    Tarn, 
18 

Rothamsted  Experiments, 
Tipper,  50 

Sailmaking,  Kipping,  21 

—  Sadler,  21 

Sanitary  Work,  Slagg,  36 
Savouries    and    Sweets,    Allen, 
47 


INDEX  TO  CATALOGUE. 


Saw  Mills,  Bale,  36 
Screw  Threads,  Hasluck,  9 
Sea  Terms,  Pirrie,  21 
Sewage,  Irrigation,  Burn,  52 

Purification,  Barwise,  36 

Sewing    Machinery,     Urquhart, 

47 

Sheep  (The),  Spooner,  50 
Sheet-Metal  Work,  Crane,  46 

—  Work,   Warn    &•    Horner, 

46 

Shoring,  B  la  grove,  32 
Ship  Building,   Sommerfeldt,   21 

—  German,  Felskoivski,  21 
Ships  and  Boats,  Bland,  21 
Silver,  Metallurgy  of,  Eissler,  24 
Silversmith's  Handbook,  Gee,  45 
Slate  Quarrying,  Davies,  27 
Slide  Rule,  Hoare,  53 

Smithy  and  Forge,  Crane,  9 
Soap  Making,  tl^aW,  44 
Soils,  Burn,  50 
Spanish  Dictionary,  Elwes,  56 

Grammar,  Elwes,  56 

Specifications,  Bartholomew,  31 

—  in  Detail,  Macey,  31 
Star  Groups,  Gore,  40 
Statics,  Graham,  17 

and  Dynamics,  Baker,  55 

Stationary       Engine       Driving, 
Reynolds,  6 

Steam  Engines,  Hurst,  6 

Steam  and  Machinery  Manage- 
ment, Bale,  7 

and  Steam  Engine,  Clark, 

10 

Steam  Boiler  Construction,  Hut- 
ton,  3 

—  Boilers,  Armstrong,  5 

—  Wilson,  4 
Engine,  Baker,  6 

Goodeve,  5 

Haeder  and  Powles,  5 

Lardner,  6 

—  Safe  Use  of,  7 
Stone       Working      Machinery, 

Bale,  ii 

Strains  in  Girders,  H^^mber,  17 
on  Ironwork,  Shields,  1 7 


Submarine    Telegraphs,   Bright, 

3° 
Superficial  Measuremnt, 

Hawkings,  38 

Survey  Practice,  Jackson,  14 
Surveying,  Baker  and  Dixon,  14 

•  Frame  and  Warren,  15 

Instruments,  Heather,  55 

Land  &  Marine,  Haskoll,  14 

Subterraneous,  Fenwick,  27 

Usill,  14 

Whitelaw,  14 

with    Tacheometer,    Ken- 
nedy, 14 

Tea  Machinery,  Tayler,  46 
Technical  Guide,  Beaton,  33 

Terms,  Fletcher,  8 

Timber  Importer,  Grandy,  37 

Merchant,  Dowsing,  37 

Richardson,  38 

Toothed  Gearing,  Horner,  9 
Tramways,  Clark,  16 
Transmission      by      Electricity, 

Atkinson,  29 

Traverse  Tables,  Lintern,  27 
Tree  Planter,  Wood,  53 

Pruner,  Wood,  53 

Trigonometry,  Plane,  Hann,  55 

—  Spherical,  Hann,  55 
Trusses,  Griffiths,  18 
Tunnelling,  Prelini  and  Hill,  15 

Simms  and  Clark,  15 

Tunnel  Shafts,  5wc£,  16 
Turning,  Engineers',  Horner,  2 

Lathe,  Hasluck,  9 

—  Metal,  Hasluck,  48 
Wood,  Hasluck,  48 

Ventilation  of  Buildings,  Buchan, 

36 

Villa  Architecture,  Wic&es,  34 
Visible  Universe,  Gore,  40 
Vitruvius'    Architecture,    Gwilt, 

Watch  Jobbing,  Hasluck,  48 

—  Maker,  Saunier,  44 

—  Repairing,  Garrard,  44 
Watches,  History  of,  Kendal,  45 


64 


INDEX  TO  CATALOGUE. 


Water  Purification,  Rideal,  35 

Engineering,  Slagg,  13,  35 

Power  of,  Glynn,  13 

Supply,  Number,  12,  35 

Greenwell  and  Curry, 

12,35 
Supply  of  Towns,  Burton, 

i2>  35 

Waterworks,  Hughes,  13 
Well-Sinking,  Swindell,  13 


Wireless  Telegraphy,  Seivall,  2.9 
Wood  Carving  for  Amateurs,  40 

—  Engraving,  Brown,  47 
-  Turning,  Hasluck,  48 

Woods  and  Marbles,   Imitation 

of,  Van  der  Burg,  38 
Woodworking,  Hasluck,  48 

—  Machinery,  Bale,  36 
Workshop  Practice,  Winton,  9 
Works'  Manager,  Hutton,  3 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF  ^ 


-4/r 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


HIM  2 


'318 
APR  22  1918 


87  IS 


REC.  cm   APR  i  (f 


30m-l,'15 


TS  //  fff? 


1*7 


IB5081 


